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Zdzisław Chlewiński
Zdzisław Chlewiński
Zjawisko polaryzacji ostrożność—ryzyko w sytuacjach grupowego podejmowania decyzji
Polarization Risk-Caution in Group Decision-Making
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The research presented in the article was of a descriptive nature and aimed at: (1) identifying situations in which, under the influence of the group, polarization occurred along the risk-caution line, and situations in which the polarization did not take place; (2) discovering whether the polarization depended on the type of decision-making group (male vs. female groups); (3) determining the persistence of polarization after the dissolution of the group, with regard for the relations (caution, invariability, risk) between pre-group (first individual), group and post-group (second individual) decisions; (4) discovering possible groups and individuals that consistently apphed the same methods in solving dilemmas.Polarization was studied by means of the dilemma questionnaire of Kogan and Wallach (1964) as translated and adapted by Zaleski (1978). The subjects were students of the List two forms of secondary school aged 17 to 19. Four hundred groups of three persons were tested, twro hundred of them male and two hundred female, 1200 people in all. The first stage of the research consisted in filling out the questionnaire individually. The second stage involved solving the same dilemmas in the groups, with collective expression of opinion (following a discussion) on a single questionnaire. Finally, the subjects once again made individual decisions.The study has revealed that:(1) There are dilemmas in which there are more risky than cautious groups: I, III, IV, VI, VII, IX; there also are dilemmas with rm re cautious than risky groups: X, XII. Some dilemmas have been identified for which risk-taking is approximately as frequent as caution: II, VIII, X, XI. In all the twelve dilemmas there was a comparatively high percentage of subjects who did not change their individual decisions in the process of group decision-making (from 26 to 40 per cent). This clearly indicates the limited extent of polarization. Many decision-makers do not submit to group influence.(2) There was a pronounced difference between men and women as regards group decisions. Tn women there was a stronger preference for risk-taking than for caution in dilemmas I, IV and VI, in which men exhibited no such tendency. In men, there was a stronger risk-preference in dilemma IX. It is wort noting that in most dilemmas men showed a stronger inclination to persevere in their decisions than women. Men seem to be more resistant to the influence of the group.3) Some groups were found to be extremely cautious, risky or invariable. Among the four hundred groups 22 were extremely risky (10 of these male, 12 female), 30 were extremely cautious (12 male, 18 female) and 26 were invariable (14 male, 12 femaleh This indicates that polarization depends to some extent on the structure or other features of the group rather than on the decision-making situation as such.(4) The results indicate that second individual decisions, following the dissolution of the group, are to a high degree consistent with the earlier group decisions, in particular as regards the dilemmas XII, IX and II, i.e. those of an existential nature, related to preservation of life or other vitally important matters. Less permanent were decisions in matter related to economic, scientific or political achievement, i.e. dilemmas III, X and XI. Four types of relation patterns between individual and group decisions have been found: invariable (about 43 per .cent) — individual decisions after the dissolution of the group are the same as those in the group; recidivist (about 41 per cent) — subjects revert to their original decisions; transitive and counter-group relation patterns were infrequent.(5) Some decision-makers were found in the sample (about 14 per cent) who frequently exhibited the same type of relation pattern in solving most dilemmas. There also was a smaller group (about 8 per cent) of those who even exhibited identical relation patterns in solving different dilemmas. This sheds some light on so-called rigidity in solving different problems as a special personality trait of the decision-makers.The research discussed in the article throws some light on the psychological mechanism of decision-making in everyday life, especially from the point of view of caution and risk.
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Zbigniew Zaleski
Zbigniew Zaleski
Wpływ spojności grupowej, rodzaju komunikacji i treści zadań decyzyjnych na polaryzację ryzyka
The Influence of Group Cohesiveness, Type of Communication and the Content of Decision Tasks on Risk Polarization
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The research presented here is concerned with the influence of group cohesiveness, communication within the group and the content of decision tasks on the group risk polarization. The hypothesis was put forward that cohesive dyads exhibited a greater risk polarization than non-cohesive ones, and that the direction of the shift was determined mainly by the objective variables of the decision situation. The hypothesis was verified by means of the choice dilemma questionnaire (CDQ) of Kogan and Wallach, which was used to test 100 cohesive dyads and 100 non-cohesive ones. In one half of dyads of each kind the joint decision was reached through discussion, while in the other half decision was reached following written communication of individual chance preferences. The results confirm the hypothesis. It turns out that there is a greater polarization of risk in cohesive groups after written communication, while in the discussion groups there was no difference in risk shift between the two types of dyads. In the absence of bonds between the members of the group and of possibilities of full exchange of information, shifts on the risk scale are insignificant for all the questionnaire items. The direction of polarization is determined by the features of the decision tasks; thus for instance there is stronger polarization in sport tasks than in existential tasks. The relevant features of the tasks yielding strong and weak polarization are pointed out. Risk polarization persists to some extent in post-group individual decisions and its direction is the same as that of group polarization.In the discussion the author proposes an explanation of the mechanism of group risk polarization by indicating its cognitive nature. The role of the interaction of emotional bonds in the group with cognitive processes is emphasized. Emotional bonds facilitate communication within the group and achievement of consensus, while risk changes themselves are the effect of cognitive processes. Ńew information probably causes risk polarization by changing the evaluation of the utility of the decision alternatives and of the magnitude of the risk itself.
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Andrzej Falkowski
Andrzej Falkowski
Wieloprogowa macierz wypłat w detekcji sygnałów:
Badania eksperymentalne nad spostrzeganiem wzrokowym
Multiple Threshold Pay-off Matrix in Signal Detection
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Many studies of human perception processes have been conducted recently based on the signal detection theory (SDT), which explains some experimental facts that cannot be accommodated by the classical Fechnerian psychophysics. In the SDT the analysis of perception processes has been enriched with some elements of decision theory, and the notion of stimulus threshold has been substituted by that of reaction threshold, whose value depends on the type of instruction, feedback information, pay-off matrix or other motivational factors. Among the several SDT methods the methods of binary decisions and probability estimate merit special attention. According to the former method, the observer obtains a single value of the reaction threshold ß by applying two reaction categories. According to the latter method, the person tested obtains several values of the reaction threshold ß1=(ß1, ß2, ß3, •••, ßn) simultaneously, by applying more than two reaction categories. In connection with the attempted new interpretation of signals the problem arises whether the perception process itself is continuous, as follows from the assumptions
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Bogdan Pietrulewicz
Bogdan Pietrulewicz
Rozwój rozumienia niektórych relacji opartych na analogii u niewidomych dzieci w wieku szkolnym
Development of the Understanding of Some Analogy-Based Relations in Blind Children of School Age
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The article deals with problems of reasoning by analogy, which plays an important compensating role in blind people. So far psychology has investigated the process of solving analogy-based relations in persons without sensory impairment, but no cases of various kinds of sensory deficiencies. Yet, wherever direct understanding of facts or phenomena fails it is substituted by assimiliation based on analogy. In the case of the blind, the similarity of relationships often decides about the entire content of a concept, whose designation is apprehended as a linguistic form and is not given in direct sense experience. The classical proportion scheme of Aristotle was used as the paradigm of experimental investigation. The elements of the proportion A:B=C:X involving identical relations, whether semantic, numerical oi figurai, constituted the test material. The subject population numbered 120 persons: 60 blind children and 60 sighted children. In each group, there were 19 third-form pupils, 21 fifth-form pupils and 20 seventh-form pupils. The investigation of reasoning by analogy showed that the least difficult was the part- -whole relation; next was the relation of opposition, and the most difficult was the cause-effect relation. The reasoning curves for the three relations have similar shapes in blind and sighted subjects of the same age. Yet, certain specific tendencies were observed. In the area of numerical reasoning, the greatest developmental dynamism occurs in the period between the third and the fifth forms. Increasing functions are easier than decreasing functions based on the same principles. Mean indices of analogy solving in the area of geometrical figures yielded a triple curve, the best results being those for the visual perception of the control group, somewhat poorer scores being obtained for the tactual perception of the blind and the poorest results being those for the tactual perception of the sighted. The skill of solving easy systems of figure analogies develops between the fifth and the seventh forms. In general it can be assumed that the apprehension of analogy in the blind results in an adequate compensation of sensory deficiency.
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Adam Biela
Adam Biela
Metodologiczne problemy konstrukcji testów analogii
The Methodological Problems of Constructing Analogies Tests
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The article deals with the methodological problems involved in the construction of analogies tests based on the scheme a-b: :c-x (a is related to b as c is related to what?). At the outset the objects and purposes of the tests are analysed. It is pointed out that analogies tests can be used to determine ability level or the level of achievement or knowledge in some area. The construction of tests intended for determining ability creates some special problems which do not arise in the construction of the other types of tests. Of the existing ability tests based on the analogy paradigm, some tests of intellectual and motor ability ought to be taken into consideration. It is emphasized that in constructing analogies tests one has to take into account not only the type of ability tested but also the psychological theory of the ability and the results of experimental studies of reasoning by analogy in situations based on the paradigm of the analogies test. Moreover, in constructing tests of reasoning by analogy intended for use with children and adolescents one has to consider the developmental regularities of reasoning by analogy as determined experimentally. Prior to constructing such tests one has to know the answer to the question of when the ability develops to reason by analogy on the basis of the particular relation categories that are at the base of the analogy relationships. It is only possible to establish such developmental regularities by means of experiments that will determine the level of difficulty of particular relation categories for consecutive age groups. That will provide the basis for plotting the relevant developmental curves.
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Czesław Walesa
Czesław Walesa
Rozwoj moralności człowieka:
(ze szczegolnym uwzględnieniem okresu dzieciństwa)
Human Moral Development
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The article, based on the literature and the author’s own reflections, belongs to the current of cognitive-developmental conceptions of moral development. The structure of morality evolves by means of manifold transmission of principles of conduct. One can distinguish within it relatively independent subjective and objective areas, and also elementary structures as indices of morality (for instance, the sense of guilt). The author gives a general presentation of several conceptions of dividing moral development into periods and stages and discusses in more detail the conception of L. Kohlberg. After a psychological analysis and moral classification of some behaviours of the child, he discusses the factors conditioning moral development, v.g. the psychobiological maturity of the organism, the family and extra-family environment, three sets of techniques of moral development and own activity. He stresses in conclusion that in the highest forms of commitment (religion, love) man transcends morality and submits to its restrictions freely and spontaneously.
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materiały |
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Adam Biela, Zdzisław Chlewlnski, Antoni Michałek
Adam Biela
Chlewiński , Antoni Mi chał ek, Potrzeby psychiczne gornikow:
Wyniki wstępnych badań psychologicznych
The Psychological Needs of Miners
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Working on the assumption that psychological needs are at the hase of mechanisms controlling human behaviour the authors point to some consequences of the lack of satisfaction of basic needs in miners. Theoretical analyses are supported with the results of preliminary investigations of some psychological needs (the need for affiliation, security, development, recognition). The investigation was carried out by means of a test interview based on preference principles. The data obtained made it possible to establish a hierarchy of the needs studied, their intensity and directions of need satisfaction. The interviews also provided data enabling the authors to hypothesize about the level of satisfaction of particular needs. Basing on the analyses some general postulates were put forward to provide material for analysis and discussion for the competent administrative and social bodies.
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Józef Makselon
Józef Makselon
Problem postaw wobec śmierci
The Problem of Attitudes Towards Death
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The article presents some theoretical and methodological problems of investigating attitudes towards death, i.e., thanatological attitudes (thanatos — death; logos — science, knowledge).Death is a complex phenomenon. One can speak of psychological death and of the psychology of death. Psychological death can take the following forms: thanatomimesis, phenomenological death, social death. From the point of view of psychology death is interpreted as a certain type of interpersonal relation, a context in which information is transmitted. There are as many kinds of death and attitudes related to it as there are ideas, situations, answers and perspectives available to man.Man’s attitude towards death is dominated by fear. Modern man suppresses the problem of death and this leads to neurotic disturbances. Death is ambivalent, but when it is made meaningful it becomes something positive.The attitude towards death depends on: individual developmental experience, cultural con. text, Weltanschauung, current personal circumstances, resistance to stressful situations, level of danger to one’s life.In early investigations of attitudes towards death only the dimension of fear was taken into account. Many different aspects are being investigated now. For the psychology of death to develop more fully, connections ought to be studied between certain aspects of personality (value preferences, awareness of sense of life, religiousness, level of anxiety, self-acceptance, attitude to time) and attitude towards death. The author’s experimental research has revealed that it is necessary to distinguish at least two aspects in the thanatological attitude: attitude towards one’s own death and attitude towards the death of a close person.
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Jerzy Strojnowski
Jerzy Strojnowski
Rozwiązywanie konfliktow w rodzinie
Conflict Solving in the Family
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Within the humanistic current of modern psychology the school of Rogers is distinguished by its practical approach. It suggests concrete modes of action that effectively improve human relations. T. Gordon applies Rogers’ principles for the purpose of forming positive attitudes among members of the family. In particular, he demonstrates a method of solving conflicts between parents and children without violence or inordinate concessions so that neither side feels wronged. Gordon shows that only that kind of attitude on the part of the parents stimulates the emotional and Intellectual development and favours the socialization of: children. It is not enough to impart pedagogical knowledge to parents verbally. Group-training is a much more efficacious method of forming the right attitudes and skills.
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materiały z sympozjum |
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Stanisław Mazierski
Stanisław Mazierski
Wprowadzenie
Wprowadzenie
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Andrzej Trautman
Andrzej Trautman
Einstein a geometryzacja fizyki
Einstein a geometryzacja fizyki
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Stanisław Szpikowski
Stanisław Szpikowski
Idee relatywistyczne w mechanice kwantowej
Relativistic Ideas in Quantum Mechanics
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The influence of Einstein relativistic ideas on quantum mechanics were shown in the early stage of foundation of quantum mechanics. The relativistic improvement of Bohr theory given by Sommerfeld, the Klein-Gordon relativistic equation, and the Dirac equation were described in respect to the particular example of hydrogen atom. Some consequences of Dirac theory as electron oscillations, antielectrons, antimatter and some, so far, uncleared interpretations were also underlined.
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Jerzy Rayski
Jerzy Rayski
Stosunek Einsteina do teorii kwantów
Stosunek Einsteina do teorii kwantów
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Michał Heller
Michał Heller
Dyskusje kosmologiczne Einstein-Lemaître
Cosmological Discussions between Einstein and Lemaître
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Discussions on cosmological themes between Einstein and Lemaître are briefly reported. The main topics of these discussions were: is the Universe static or expanding? the initial singularity problem, and the problem of the so-called cosmological constant. Report is partially based on non-published notes left by Lemaître in his private archive.
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Mieczysław Subotowicz
Mieczysław Subotowicz
Weryfikacja ogolnej teorii względności (OTW)
Verification on the General Theory of Relativity (GRT)
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Einstein proposed three effects to verify GRT:1. gravitational red shift,2. gravitational deflection of light,3. advance of perihelium.The introductory discussion deals with the problem to which extent the effects (1-3) test the GRT. Some of them (1-2) test the basic principles of the GRT, mainly the equivalence principle <5>. The nature of the equivalence principle was shortly discussed <6>.The up to date results of the observational tests of the effects (1-3) were discussed:a) the Mössbauer effect to observe the gravitational red shift in the laboratory conditions,b) the use of the artificial satellites to test the gravitational red shift <1, 16, 20, 21>, deflection of light <2> and advance of perigeum <16> as a result of the Einstein's effect and that of Lense and Thirring <23>.There were analysed also other effects verifying GRT:c) suggested by Shiff <4, 5> the precession of the spin axis of a spherical gyroscope in a free orbit -around the non-rotating or rotating attracting body,d) echo delay of the radar waves reflected from the planets or planetary probes.The problem of the detection of the gravitational waves was discussed shortly in Weber-type <21; 24> experiments and Hulse’ and Taylors observations <25; 26>. 5
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Andrzej Staruszkiewicz
Andrzej Staruszkiewicz
Co znaczą słowa Einsteina „Bóg jest pomysłowy, lecz nie złośliwy”
What do Einstein’s Words „God is Ingenious, but not Malicious” mean?
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Einstein’s words „God is ingenious, but not malicious” can be understood as an ontological hypothesis ascribing a certain property to the world. This property can be intuitivly described by assuming that the universe has been created, or just imagined, by God, whose mind is subject to the same limitations, which are imposed on the human mind by language and mathematics.
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Stanisław Mazierski
Stanisław Mazierski
Albert Einstein o roli filozofii w naukach fizykalnych
Albert Einstein’s Opinions on the Role of Philosophy in Physical Sciences
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According to Albert Einstein, physical sciences implicitly accept certain assumptions, among which three ones deserve a special attention:1° assumptions of the ontological type. He formulates one of them in the following way: „A belief in the existence of an external world independent of the cognizing subject, is the foundation of all the natural science”. (Another assumption says that there is a common causal bond between things and phenomena Einstein accepts the common causality).2° The second group of assumptions is constituted by epistemological suppositions. Einstein believes that the world is cognizable since it is rational in its structure. There is a correlation between purely intelectual constructions and the fundamental rules of the reality. Intelectual constructions are supplied 'with a physical sense by an experiment. The Correspondence between empirical and theoretical elements called harmonia praestahilita by G. Leibniz, was interpreted by Einstein according to the spirit of his epistemology.From the philosophy of B. Spinoza Einstein has borrowed the idea, that the knowledge about the world should have a deductive character, logically uniform, since the universe is one large substance which determines all the phenomena and processes. Nevertheless Einstein was closer to Leibniz’s attitude, according to which the order of the world is defined by the fundamental laws lying at the foundations of the planned construction of the world. Discovering these laws is the task of a physicist and cosmologist.Generally speaking philosophy performs the role of so called regulative ideas in relation to the natural sciences. A change of philosophical views can produce a revolution in sciences.
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Eugeniusz Olszewski
Eugeniusz Olszewski
O społecznych i politycznych poglądach i działalności Alberta Einsteina
Einstein’s Social and Political Views and Activities
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A sense of social responsibility was the reason why Einstein tried to overcome the need of loneliness, which was an important trait in liis character, in order to develop his socio-political activities. These activities were intensified as he gained recognition and then fame, which was caused by his scientific achievements. This was because he realized that along with his fame, the social importance of his declarations and his activities increases.Believing that knowledge should be developed for its own sake, Einstein insisted at the same time, that practical applications of the results of the experiments should be used to the humanity’s good. For a long time he was an active pacifist, but when Hitlerism came to power, he came to conclusion, that it constitutes such a great danger, that it is necessary to develop the arms to prevent the world from being conquered. This was the reason why in 1939 he signed a letter to President Roosevelt, in which he pointed to the necessity to carry on the experiments on the possibility to develop the atom bomb. Being aware of the fact that he shares in the responsibility for its realization, Einstein the stronger commited himself to the fight against the dangers of the nuclear war in the last decade of his life.
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rozprawy rożne |
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Zygmunt Hajduk
Zygmunt Hajduk
Semantyczna koncepcja struktury i poznawczego wartościowania teorii fizykalnych
Approach to the Structure and Approisal of Scientific Theories
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In the article three versions distinguished in the semantic conception of scientific theories are subjected to an analysis. The first one is represented by J. Sneed, W. Stegmüller; the second one by F. Suppe, B. C. van Fraassen, P. Suppes; and the third one by JML Bunge, M. Przełęcki, R. Wójcicki. As far as the essence is concerned, the problem of (the structure of the scientific theories and their cognitive value exhibited in the conceptual framework of particular orientations of the semantical approach, which condition a justified acceptance and rejection of the theory, have been distinguished in these versions. A philosophical context for these problems has been pointed too.
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Włodzimierz Sedlak
Włodzimierz Sedlak
Podstawy kwantowej paleohiofizyki
The Foundations of Quantum Paleobiophysics
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The aim of paleobiophysics is to reconstruct the oldest stages of Life physics on the basis of structural and functional relics. The present litosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere constitute a degraded state of matter. According to Kuhn and Kittmann, the primitive plasma is found in the Earth nucleus. Life is a relic, which has been transmitting the undegraded state of matter for five thousand million years. This is because life is connected with a general excited state of the system. Three parallel processes. — metabolism, biolaser effects and bioplasma — are distinguished by excitement and degradation of this state, which accompanies a release of energy. Molecular evolution conditioned not only the efficiency of chemical processes, but also the development of electrical and magnetic properties of biomass. These features constitute the empirical basis for bioelectronics. The author discusses the quantum magnetic processes more thoroughly. The evolution led through free paramgnetic atoms of transition metals to their organic complexes and perhaps through the stage of ferrocene, non-existent today. On the other hand, the role of ferredoxin can be investigated phylogenetlcally. It probably plays the role of a molecular antenna receiving weak signals of EM (organic ferrite). The functionality of DNA can be explained by the complexes of bivalent iron and purines. Life has used not only electrons, but also their spin states.In a living system working as a nonlinear quantum oscillator there are proper conditions for self-synchronization. Acceptance of term „bioplasma” explains the self-excitation of the system by its own^plasma frequencies. The author also gives an outline of relativistic biophysics. Biological events happen in a four-dimension space, with time distinguishing itself by a phylogenetic load. The isolation of a living system from its environment is done by a surface condensation of charges (electrostasis). Further individualization is done by producing biological membranes. The author modifies Mitchell’s chemical-osmotic theory, by understanding water as a proton semiconductor and the electronic processes related to it. The article is the first part of quantum paleobiophysics.
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