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Józef Pastuszka
Józef Pastuszka
Człowiek i czas:
refleksje psychologiczne
Man and Time
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Time presents a difficult problem, both to the philosopher and the psychologist. All conscious human experiences take place in time, which developes in three dimensions: the present, the past, and the future, and none of these appears to have real existence.The author discusses two problems: the experience of time and the human attitude to time, namely man’s link with time and his struggle with time.The experience of time in the present turns about the moment, which most closely links man with life, although itself is short. The future is an attempt to project the moment into possible happenings and is, in principle, a work of the imagination.The past has no reality, but factually occurs in man as a series of remembered pictures which, however, act upon the present.Time is properly a moment, which lasts briefly, passes and is renewed, but as another moment.The basic attitude of man towards time is linking with time and living within time, taking part in the processes which form time, perceiving moments in the world, comparing his own processes with them, transforming himself on that basis, accepting environmental, physical and mental stimuli, joining in the life of the environment and shaping his own forms for living on this pattern.Simultaneously, man fights with time, the expression of which is his control of time by technical means, measurements of size and difference. In addition, every act of reflective thought is opposition to time, for it is exclusion of certain experiences from the wave of perceptions streaming through consciousness. Similarly, the act of remembering and analysing certain perceptions. A typical form of struggle with time is speech and material speed. The latter gives a feeling of superiority over time and brings confusion and forgetting of time. An interesting form of „ethic struggle” with time is the fidelity of man to other men and himself.Similarly, exterior culture (works of art, buildings etc.) can be assessed as opposition to time.
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Władysław Prężyna
Władysław Prężyna
Koncepcja postawy w psychologii
The Concept of Attitude in Psychology
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What are the essential elements in the concept of attitude? It appears that the basic feature of an attitude is the element of relation — the relation between the subject and object of the attitude. This relation is expressed in three forms: convictions, emotions and behaviour towards the object of the attitude; together they form a compact system, relatively stable and dynamic. The three components mentioned may differ in: valence (direction and intensity) and consistency or the degree of correlation which may exist between three components.Attitude understood thus, is a theoretical concept. The definition of the substance of the concept of attitude is made indirectly — by observation and analysis of the characteristics of the empiric indices, which are the directly' observable reactions.
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Jerzy Strojnowski
Jerzy Strojnowski
Polska psychiatria społeczna w ujęciu historycznym
The Historical View of Polish Social Psychiatry
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If the task of social psychiatry is to discover the correlation between social factors and mental disorders, this connection cannot be found without the light of history. The psyche, like the various phases of social life correlating with it, is the product of a long process lasting thousands of years. Thus, we should follow up, in this aspect, a series of prehistoric and historic cultures, from the times when stone tools were used, up to the whole complex of modern dependencies of the individual human.Investigations on the culture of the early Slavonic tribes indicate that the language of our forefathers contained many expressions reffering to normal and pathological mental experience, which proves that they were interested in the evidence of the activity of the psyche and attempted to interpret it. The early Slavs had the beginnings of knowledge of heredity and constitutionalism, as can be shown by an analysis of beliefs concerning fate. Belief in południca contains a knowledge of the symptomatology of mental and neurological disorders caused by physical exhaustion and exposure to strong sunlight, and simultaneously gives hygienic instruction which enable these disorders to be effectively prevented. Magic, which the early Slavs also knew, we shall here consider chiefly as an important factor of solidarity within the tribe, forming an effective defence of the weaker from physical violence. Intoxication was almost entirely a collective cult phenomenon.The attitude of the early Slavs to the handicapped, including the mentally sick was generally kindly, sometimes even one of religious awe. Mentally handicapped persons were in some regions particularly venerated as the performers of cult ceremonies, magic and healing arts. Sometimes, however, they were treated inimically.Together with Christianity (the baptism of Mieszko I — 966 A. D.) there appears a cultural element which is qualitatively different and new — the idea of care for the weak and the sick, without the expectation of material reward. Christian mercy — Caritas seen in the evolutionary aspect, we consider as a particular expression of interhuman solidarity and thus as a sign of progress.The Christian culture of the West also brought with it the school and book form of education. Thanks to this, the prelogical and magical altitude to diseases was gradually overcome by the rational and scientific attitude. Polish physicians of the XVIth 'century universally regard madness as an illness, which proves that they had left behind them prelogical prejudices toward the mentally sick.The end of the Middle Ages and the beginnings of modern times were full of internal, warf are that desolated Europe. At this time contacts with the East were increasing and later also with the newly-discovered America. Western scholars became more widely familiar with the scientific achievements of antiquity. All this made for the decline of authorities, and travel and migrations helped to spread epidemics. „Bad government, exactions, the cupidity and violence of the great, wars and brigandage, scarcity, misery and pestilence — to this is contemporary history nearly reduced in the eyes of the people” (Huizinga, The Waning of the Middle Ages, English translation by F. Hopman). Everything inclined the man of these times to violent acts, to extremes such as explosions of hatred or generous consecration of himself for the sake of the suffering. However, for Poland these were times of relative peace.The appearance on Jan Ciudad, called John of God, at the end of the XVI and beginning of the XVII century was a turning-point in the attitude towards the mentally sick. The congregation of Bonifraters founded by him initiated most of hospitals for the mentally sick in Europe, including Poland. Nursing the mentally sick is a particular phenomenon in the evolution of the human society, a phenomenon which slowly but surely prevails over former tendencies, regressive in relation to it, which were inclined to use repression towards these unfortunates. Eloquent evidence of this victory is the remarkable development of psychiatric hospitalization, which has, today, spread over almost the whole world.The XVIIth century, in which european science and culture flourished, is a time of decline in Poland. This country was overwhelmed by wars which were accompanied by epidemics. The dynasty of kings from Saxony brought us reprieve. The serf barely vegetated, the gentry gave themselves over to drunkenness, the towns fell into economic decay. Then and only then, religious intolerance reared its head in Poland and trials for witchcraft revived.Already half-way through the XVIIIth century there is an obvious national revival. Polish youth went abroad to study, journalism appeared, many foreigners settled in Poland, among whom were not a few physicians. The founding of the Educational Commission (1773) was a particularly important event. The end of the XVIIIth century brought the reform of some Polish universities, above all of the Cracow and the Vilno Academy, with their faculties of medicine.Voices begin to be raised against alcoholism. Attention was paid to neuro- -psychic disorders, of which it was thought that they were the result of leading an unnatural life. The questions of the hereditary nature of mental disorders, and of mental hygiene, were investigated.Society of the age of enlightenment by no means exhibited sobriety and common sense. The upper classes believed in „sympathies'’ and „magnetism”, while simple folk were still tormented by witchcraft and ghosts. Perzyna pronounces for their guidance: „Possession (daemonomania) is the pretence of madness” and „only recently our gloriously reigning [...] Stanislaus Augustus [...] (1776) in abolishing torture, liberated the people from the persecution of foolish, and John Bo- homolec, tearing the veil from their eyes, uncovered the folly of believing appearances".For many centuries care of the sick, including the mentally sick, was the domain of Christian mercy and philanthropy, in which the local, or the State authorities did not betray much interest. The emphasis was on the isolation of the mentally sick from the „healthy” population. The conviction that hospitals were a State concern, was voiced in Poland about half-way through the XVIIIth century, and found expression in the so-called Hospital Commissions in 1775.As time went on, the tendency grew for the State to take over hospital administration. In the Russian zone of partitioned Poland there were a series of legislative acts which gradually limited the function of non-governmental officiąls in the hospitals. However, the governmental initiative did not solve even the most important problems in psychiatric treatment, which social action attempted to allay.During the period between the world wars there were still many psychiatric hospitals in Poland administrated by communal authorities; after the second world war they all became controlled by the State.Hospitalization and other forms of psychiatric treatment, although as yet unable to fulfil all needs, are developing rapidly in People’s Poland. In addition, Poland at present is carrying out large-scale investigations in the field of psychiatry and social psychopathology.
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Janusz Kostrzewski
Janusz Kostrzewski
Rzetelność i trafność polskiego przekładu 14-czynnikowego kwestionariusza do badania osobowości dzieci 8—12-letnich
Reliability and Validity of the Polish Translation of R. B. Porter And R. B. Cattell’s C. P. Q.
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The purpose of the article is a measurement of the reliability and validity of the Polish translation of R. B. Porter and R. B. Cattell’s C. P. Q., and a critical appraisal of this method.The coefficients of reliability are based on the testing of 100 children aged 9 years (50 boys and 50 girls). The dependability coefficients (test-retest coefficient without an interval) of our translation vary from 0.41 (factor E) to 0.76 (factor B), while the stability coefficients (called test-retest coefficient after an interval of 14 days) vary from 0.28 (factor A) to 0.J67 (factor N). These were too low to use as a basis in the analysis of individual cases. This inclined the translator to revise his translation; a new version appeared in 1965 in an experimental edition.In the light of the investigations with the Polish translation of the C. P. Q. neurotic boys (28 children) differed from their healthy coevals (50 children, in 10 factors: A-, C-, DH-, E+, G-, H-, I-, J+, 0+ and Q4 -j-, while neurotic girls (26 children) differed from their healthy coevals (50 children) in 8 factors. These are: A-, C-, D+, E+, G-, 0+, Q3- and Q4+. 28 boys with behavioural disorders (in this group were cases of characteropathy, psychopathy, and anomalies in the formation of character) differed from their coevals without behavioural disorders in the factors: A-, C-, D+, G-, H-, N+, and Q4+. The 28 boys with behavioural disorders differed from the neurotic boys in C-f-, F+, G-, H+ and Q4+. Girls successful in school differed from coevals without school success in 7 factors: B+, C+, D-, H+, O-, Q3-f- and Q4-, while boys successful in school differed in 6 factors from boys without school success: B+, C+, H+, J+, Q3-f- and Q4-. The author observed that certain questions were too obvious, containing socially accepted values, and these should be omitted. The method discussed (ed. 1959) is a good diagnostic tool in relation to neurotic children, children with behavioural disorders, and children successful in school or without school success. However, its dependability and stability should be increased. Possibly a new translation will fulfil these requirements. Further investigation is indicated.
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Mieczysław Niewiadomski
Mieczysław Niewiadomski
Cechy osobowości skrupulatów
Personality Traits of Individuals With Scruples
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The article presents the results of investigations on the personality of individuals with scruples. The investigations were carried out by means of the Personality Questionnaire of R. B. Cattell, edited by M. Choynowski and standardized on a Polish population. This is the Polish version of the Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire of R. B. Cattell (4). A supplementary method of investigation was a specially constructed biographical questionnaire. The group examined consisted of 30 scrupulous individuals with secondary or university education aged 21—60 years, of whom the majority had suffered from scruples for from 6 to 20 years. The criterion for inclusion in this group was the appraisal of a priest- confessor.The author first presents views on the essence of scruples, with emphasis on the psychasthenic theory of P. Janet (13) and the theory of emotional immaturity with consideration of the psychological views of R. Gleason and G. Hagmaier (10), H. Gratton (13) and N. Mailloux (18) on the role of the super-ego in the process of the formation of scruples. He then analyses the material gathered.The results obtained allow the observation to be made that scrupulous individuals very significantly differ from persons in the comparative group in the following factors: emotional immaturity (C-), submission (E-), desurgency and feeling of inadequacy (F-), dominant structure of the super-ego (G+), inhibition and deep state of depression (H-), great sensitivity and need to be understood (I+), naïveté and simplicity (N-), a tendency to blame themselves, especially group Si with higher results in the scale of anxiety (0+), conventionalism in their social attitude (Qi), increased general psychic tension (Q4). The scrupulous are also characterized by flight from responsibility, anxiety, doubts, importunacy and general maladjustment. Among the principal features which condition the arisal of scruples can be counted emotional immaturity and dominant super-ego, and among the chief mental symptoms are feelings of guilt and anxiety. In the statistical analysis of the results, in the factors of anxiety there appeared two groups of scrupulous individuals, with high and low scores on the anxiety, rating. The first group consisted of scrupulous individuals with anxieties, the second of scrupulous perfectionists.The dominating and unintegrated super-ego, in the scrupulous, is transformed into the neurotic conscience, called the emotional conscience.On the basis of these investigations, the author defined scruples as fear of transgressing the pseudomoral norms of an emotional conscience.
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Tadeusz Witkowski
Tadeusz Witkowski
Z badań nad wrażliwością moralną dzieci o obniżonej sprawności umysłowej
Investigations on the Moral Sensitivity of Subnormal Children
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Investigations were carried out on the moral sensitivity of subnormal children in order to verify the hypothesis that moral sensitivity in these children is lower than in normal children. In addition it was hoped to find at least certain conditionings.30 boys in a home for mental retardates (morons) formed the experimental group, while 30 normal boys formed the control group. AH boys investigated were aged 12—14 years.Each individual examined was faced with the same situations given verbally in the form of short anecdotes with illustrations. His task was to state what good or bad he had noticed in them. The number of elements with moral significance that was mentioned was considered the criterion of ability to react to good and bad moral phenomena in situations capable of moral assessment.The experimental group attained decidedly lower results. The mean of points for subnormal children was about 45, while for normal children it was 70. Analysis of the results made is possible to state the dependence of moral sensitivity on intelligence, age, personal experience and emotional factors.
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Janusz Kostrzewski
Janusz Kostrzewski
Współczesny pogląd na etiologię choroby L. Downa
The Contemporary View of the Etiology of Down’s Disease
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The article is a brief presentation of contemporary views on the etiology of Down’s disease, including the results of the author’s own investigations.In the introduction the author gives the results of his own investigations on 200 cases of Down’s disease and a group of 200 non-mongoloid mental retardates, which indicated a connection between Down’s disease and the age of the mothers in older age-groups. He informs, after L. S. Penrose, that at present two groups of mongoloids are distinguished. In 75% of the mongoloids, the greater age of the mother is a significant factor in the etiology of Down’s disease. In 25% of the mongoloids, the mother’s age is not significant; other factors, which he discusses are decisive. He gives the frequency of occurrence of chromosome anomalies of the type: trisomia, translocation, mozaicism and others in Down’s disease, basing his information on the results of investigations in the world literature and the Lublin investigations of Mrs. Dobrzańska M. D. He submits the results of the introductory investigations of J. Strojnowski M. D. and his own on the periodicity of births of mongoloids in the Lublin province. These results are similar to those of R. Collman and A. Stoll er in 1962. Finally, he reports that chromosome anomalies are the direct cause of L. Down’s disease. Greater age of the parents appears not to be a cause, but a factor facilitating the arisal of such chromosome anomalies. Other causes of the chromosome anomalies are numerous, inter alia, infections, viruses, chemical substances, x-rays and all other mutagennie factors.
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Zdzisław Chlewiński
Zdzisław Chlewiński
Niektóre podstawy klasyfikacji metod skalowania w naukach behawioralnych
Certain Bases for Classification of Scaling Methods in the Behavioural Sciences
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The purpose of the communication is to inform Polish readers of an original classification of types of scale, kinds of testing, and scaling methods presented by W. S. Torgerson. The bases of his classification render prominent the various formal and real properties of different types of scaling. The classification emphasizes the specific nature of each method. The importance of the question of scaling in psychology is also indicated in this communication.
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Zdzisław Chlewiński
Zdzisław Chlewiński
Zakłady naukowe na specjalizacji filozoficzno-psychologicznej KUL
Zakłady naukowe na specjalizacji filozoficzno-psychologicznej KUL
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Jan Rzepka
Jan Rzepka
Sprawozdanie z pracy sekcji psychologicznej wykładowcow psychologii w katolickich wyższych uczelniach
Sprawozdanie z pracy sekcji psychologicznej wykładowcow psychologii w katolickich wyższych uczelniach
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Zenomena Płużek
Zenomena Płużek
Handbook of Clinical Psychology
Handbook of Clinical Psychology
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Józef Pastuszka
Józef Pastuszka
Aristotelis Tractatus De Anima graece et latine
Aristotelis Tractatus De Anima graece et latine
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Jerzy Słrojnowski
Jerzy Słrojnowski
Nerwy i mozg ludzki
Nerwy i mozg ludzki
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Zdzisław Chlewiński
Zdzisław Chlewiński
Barwa i człowiek
Barwa i człowiek
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Zdzisław Chlewiński
Zdzisław Chlewiński
Oczy i widzenie
Oczy i widzenie
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Helena Kozłowska
Helena Kozłowska
La caractérologie, à l'âge scientifique
La caractérologie, à l'âge scientifique
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Marian Grabowski
Marian Grabowski
Problemy i metody badań typów układu nerwowego człowieka
Problemy i metody badań typów układu nerwowego człowieka
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Charts from "Cechy osobowości skrupulatow"
Charts from "Cechy osobowości skrupulatow"
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Stanisław Mazierski
Stanisław Mazierski
Przedmiot filozofii przyrody inspiracji arystotelesowsko-tomistycznej
L’Objet de la Philosophie de la Nature Selon l'Inspiration Aristotélicienne et Thomiste
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Le propos de l’article est de tenter un regard peut-être neuf sur l’objet et les tâches de la philosophie de la nature et d’apporter une réponse à la question concernant le domaine propre de celle-ci; l’auteur s’efforce aussi de trouver une position telle qu’elle puisse permettre de fonder en droit le statut de la philosophie de la nature en tant que discipline distincte et d’élaborer un système cosmologique consistant et logiquement cohérent.Les réflexions sur le fond sont précédées d’une courte présentation de diverses conceptions de la philosophie de la nature, chez les auteurs non-thomistes en particulier, afin de mettre en relief l’objet propre de cette science. On en a distingué essentiellement quatre: philosophie de la nature en tant que ce qu’on appelle la „science au commencement”, philosophie de la nature en tant que synthèse des sciences naturelles, en tant qu’analyse des méthodes utilisées par celles-ci, enfin, en tant que réflexion sur les faits des sciences naturelles.L’objet de la philosophie de la nature au sens général c’est la réalité matérielle que composent les êtres matériels avec leurs propriétés générales et leurs changements. La cosmologie s’occupe aussi de la collectivité des corps pris dans leur ensemble et de la structure de l’univers en tant que groupant les êtres matériels considérés dans le temps et dans l’espace. Les idées anciennes et; médiévales sur la structure géocentrique de l’univers ont été rejetées par les sciences naturelles, la cosmologie d’Aristote, revue par Thomas d’Aquin, n’en a pas moins gardé sa valeur comme théorie philosophique des êtres matériels et de leurs transformations. La philosophie de la nature pose également la question des dimensions spatiales de l’univers, se bornant toutefois sur ce point à étudier la possibilité même de l’existence d’un monde illimité en son étendue.Pour préciser plus exactement l’objet propre de la cosmologie l’auteur part du texte d’ In librum Boethii de Trinitate, qu. V, a. 1, dans lequel St. Thomas distingue trois espèces d’objets de connaissance. L’un est constitué par les objets de la philosophie de la nature qui dépendent de la matière secundum esse et secundum intellectum. Les sciences se distinguent les unes des autres par le mode de définition des concepts et des choses. Il est caractéristique de la philosophie de la nature que ses définitions font appel à l’idée de matière connaissable par les sens.L’objet de la cosmologie c’est l’essence des propriétés générales et de leurs changements. Selon la philosophie traditionnelle il est possible d’étudier non seulement la nature de l’être substantiel mais encore celle de l’être accidentel et partant celle de la propriété. Sont propriétés essentielles celles qui appartiennent à tous les êtres sans exception constituant une espèce déterminée. Négativement, on peut les définir comme propriétés sans lesquelles il ne peut y exister de base pour classer un être dans une espèce. Les propriétés de cette sorte s’appellent spécifiques.Outre les propriétés spécifiques il en existe d’autres plus générales, débordant l’espèce et appartenant à tous les êtres matériels. Ces dernières sont l’extension, la spatialité, la temporalité et la changeabilité; tout être matériel est étendu, occupe une place dans l’espace, existe dans le temps et est sujet à changements. Les sciences naturelles elles aussi étudient les propriétés spécifiques et les propriétés interspécifiques mais elles le font sous un autre aspect et avec des méthodes comportant en général des mensurations, et leurs résultats sont exprimés en une langue mathématique. La philosophie de la nature, elle, s’intéresse au mode d’existence des propriétés et à leur essence. Elle parvient à la connaissance des propriétés essentielles par voie d’abstraction physique. Cette méthode lui permet d’abstraire non seulement les propriétés concrètes des corps mais encore les caractéristiques propres aux différentes espèces. On peut faire abstraction des propriétés spécifiques en un double sens. Dans le premier nous faisons abstraction des propriétés sans cependant aller au delà de la matière perceptible aux sens. Ainsi entendue, l’abstraction physique est conforme au principe fondamental de la méthodologie de l’Aquinate: In Physicis omnia terminantur ad sensum. Il y a abstraction des propriétés spécifiques dans le second sens quand nous isolons la matière des formes substantielles les plus diverses avec lesquelles ces propriétés sont substantiellement unies et par cette voie créons le concept de matière première comme pure potentialité (puissance). La matière ainsi conçue est l’objet de la connaissance par l’intellect.À l’encontre des sciences naturelles dont la fin est essentiellement de décrire, prévoir et découvrir de nouveaux phénomènes à l’aide des méthodes expérimentales et de la langue mathématique, la cosmologie vise à décrire les propriétés et les changements dans une langue philosophique. Ainsi p. ex., le physicien pose le problème si le temps et l’espace sont mesurables. Dans l’affirmative il les inclut dans le champ des études physiques. Pour le philosophe de la nature la question se pose autrement: si le temps et l’espace sont des êtres réels, en quel mode existent-ils et dans quelles conditions des changements sont-ils possibles dans leur nature. La langue de la philosophie naturelle contient des éléments propres à la cosmologie, ce qu’indique sa manière particulière de définir les concepts, mais elle fait de plus appel à l’appareil métaphysique des idées, l’appliquant aux êtres matériels, en particulier à l’explication des changements. C’est pourquoi convient-il de voir dans la philosophie naturelle thomiste une métaphysique appliquée.Au terme de ces considérations l’auteur propose de définir la cosmologie d’inspiration aristotélicienne et thomiste comme suit: la philosophie de la nature est une discipline philosophique du premier degré d’abstraction dont l’objet est le monde matériel en sa totalité ainsi que l’essence des propriétés et des changements les plus généraux des corps tombant sous les sens. Cette définition a le mérite de délimiter le champ de la recherche cosmologique. L’extension, la spatialité, la temporalité et la changeabilité sont des propriétés essentielles des êtres matériels, c.à.d. telles que les corps ne peuvent exister et sont impensables sans elles. Dès lors que les êtres matériels occupent une place dans l’espace et existent dans le temps, l’espace et le temps sont également objet de la philosophie de la nature. Les corps sont sujets à changements, ceux-ci intéressent donc la cosmologie qui en étudie les diverses sortes, les causes et les effets, la direction (d’où les questions de causalité, de déterminisme et de finalité en philosophie naturelle); les lois de la nature sont également étudiées en tant que successions régulières d’événements. Affirmant que le domaine de la philosophie de la nature est constitué par l’essence des propriétés et des changements tombant sous les sens nous suivons conséquemment le principe méthodologique de la cosmologie thomiste, déjà cité: In Physicis...L’auteur distingue l’objet propre de la philosophie de la nature des tâches de celle-ci, distinction justifiée par le fait qu’un groupe de problèmes philosophiques n’est pas embrassé par la définition ni n’en résulte directement. Les tâches dont il est question sont diverses. On peut y compter la conception, mentionnée au début, qui voit dans la philosophie de la nature une „science au commencement”, la réflexion philosophique sur les faits des sciences naturelles, l’analyse de la langue et des notions et méthodes fondamentales dans les sciences naturelles, bref l’épistémologie et la méthodologie des sciences naturelles, ou encore la philosophie ou la critique de ces dernières.L’auteur estime que l’une des tâches principales de la cosmologie est d’identifier les réalités et les processus fournis par l’expérience courante et l’expérience scientifique. Cette tâche consiste en une mise à part analytique dans les objets de notre connaissance de ce qui est réel, matériel, objectif, d’avec l’hypothétique, le subjectif, l’d priori. Une tâche particulièrement ardue c’est celle d’analyser le tableau du monde tel que le présente la physique, ce „monde physique” étant schématique, approximatif et „stylisé”; l’expérience et l’d priori s’y mêlent jusqu’à effacer complètement la ligne de démarcation entre la langue de la physique et l’empéirza.
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Włodzimierz Sedlak
Włodzimierz Sedlak
Elektrostaza i ewolucja organiczna
Electrostasis and Organic Evolution
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The evolutionary mechanisms sought in the relation of organism to environment can be solved by reducing both sides to a common nature. The author conceives the organism and environment in terms of electromagnetic field. At every level of complexity the organism emits electromagnetic radiations. This applies to individual cells (mitogenetic radiation) as well as to organs and to the whole complex organism. Human brain radiations have been best studied so far. The „metabolism” of electromagnetic energy is a manifestation of life as much as the transformation of matter. The biological field with its electromagnetic qualities is a universal manifestation of life. The organism may be considered as an oscillator emitting biological field with large band spectrum.The nature of the biological oscillator is implied by the physics of dielectrics, crystal semiconductors modified as to the specificity of biological systems. The characteristics of the dielectric are: polarization, existence of electric field, surface- and volume concentration of charges, and anisotropy. Moreover semiconductor properties decide of the drift of charges, ions, radicals, and crystalochemical groups, and of the acceptor or donor character. The semiconductor manifests its properties in the presence of external electromagnetic field or temperature. The surface where the electromagnetic wave causes a concentration of electrons is a privileged one. It makes the semiconductor able to receive electromagnetic information.Biological systems may be considered as semiconductors, ferroelectrics and ferromagnetics. Many ferroelectrics are piezoelectrics as well. A considerable number of organic compounds apart from glucose and cellulose have proved piezoelectrics. Such are RNA and DNA, proteins particularly the muscular ones, also whole animal and plant (wood) tissues. In a biological system one may distinguish a) the mobility of electric elements (charges, ions, radicals, crystalochemical groups). Under the same heading come, too, biological microorganisms endowed with surface potential (erythrocytes, lymphocytes, bacteria, migrating cancerous cells); b) the anisotropy of the mobility of these elements as result of biomolecule or tissue geometry; c) the rhytmical changes of potential following metabolical processes and oscillations of the biological field. The biological oscillator belongs to self-regulating systems. The biological system possesses an autonomous source of electrons in consequence of catabolical processes. Another source of electrons lies in the piezoelectric effect following active movement in animals, passive movement in superior plants.Electrostasis is a surface concentration of electrons, so called on the analogy of homeostasis. The electrostasis (ECS) results from dielectric properties and surface phenomena in the electromagnetic field. Surface potentials exist not only in microorganisms but also in individual cells of tissue systems. In neoplastic states the cell potential increases by 30%. On the example of the galvanic reaction of human skin the author shows the evolutionary conditionings of surface potentials. This character is common to animals and plants. At every level of structural complexity the organism reacts by a change of potential to both external and internal stimuli. The organism sends out ECS electrons to meet environment. The organic oscillator is a semiconductor with surface concentrations of electrons (ECS) emitting a biological field of electromagnetic character. The self-regulation of this oscillator is conditioned by the coupling of electrostasis, biological mass and the field emitted. Biological systems at various stages of organization have their own electrostasis probably. The ECS plays the role of a spherical waveguide reflecting the biological field back into the living system. The losses of the organism through radiation are thus made minimal. Simultaneously the ECS is set into rhytmical vibrations by the biological field emitted.Biological magnetohydrodynamic. The semiconductor together with the drift of charges, ions, and radicals may be approximately considered as physical plasma. The laws of water solutions apply to semiconductors, while plasma is governed by the laws of hydrodynamic. The biological semiconducting oscillator may be considered as physical plasma. The biological system prevents the entropy of plasma by metabolical processes. It is a characteristic of life, though biological plasma (to be distinguished from cytologically understood protoplasma) undergoes disintegration in the course of ontogenesis with death as final effect. Bioplasma possesses its own information through longitudinal and transverse magnetohydrodynamic waves. The biological field transfers itself inside the living organism by means of magnetohydrodynamic impulses. Morphogenesis and regeneration processes, internal coordination and exchange of structural elements take place according to magnetohydrodynamic principles.Evolutionary conditioning of ECS. Electrostasis is the border between organism and environment, hence it is the receiver of electromagnetic information from the environment. Simultaneously, it transmits its own electromagnetic information in the form of biological field. The ECS screens the biological system from the noxious influence of environmental radiation. It is then a filter and shock absorber of radiations. When all the screening mechanisms fail, the electromagnetic wave invades the biological system and begins destructive action in it. The ECS is the integrator of the different electronic processes in the biological system, the detector of electromagnetic information from outside, and the emitter of its own information. It is the ECS that ensures the minimization of the entropy of the biological system. Rubner’s law on the relation between surface and volume takes a new form with the existence of electrostasis.As prospects for further research the author suggests a possible solution of the etiology and pathogenesis of cancer. The cancer becomes an autonomous biological oscillator, changes its semiconductor properties and biological field, and apparently creates its own electrostasis. In consequence, the cancer develops a different mode of reception of magnetohydrodynamic impulses from the organism, and breaks off the general coordination of the biological system. The author mentions, too, an electromagnetic theory of life which he is working out.
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