On the ground of the empirical data, the present paper was to find out whether there is any interrelationship between intensity of religious attitude and personality traits defined as predispositions to particular interpersonal behaviours in social situations, as well as to determine the extent of the phenomenon. By intensity of religious attitude one means the strength and determination with which the individual abides by his attitude.The intensity was tested by means of the Religious Attitude Scale designed by the author (Prężyna). H. G. Gough’s Psychological Inventory (California Psychological Inventory) in its Polish version (translated by Z. Płużek) standarized on the Polish population and compiled by the Psychometric Workshop of the Polish Academy of Sciences (B. Markowska, A. Kottas) was employed in the personality tests. The tests were carried out in 1972 upon higher school graduates between twenty-one years and thirty five (arts graduates — 38 per cent, science graduates — 62; per cent).The interrelationship between religious attitude and personality was exploreted through isolation of differences in the personality traits of people with a different level of intensity of religious attitude. Among the latter there were isolated three groups of testees: with high positive intensity (N = 30), with low intensity (N = 30), and with high intensity of negative religious attitude (N = 20). In turn, these groups were tested in respect of personality traits.The received empirical data clearly reveal the interrelationship between both structures. It is evident in the differences in the personality traits discovered in particular groups. The differences between the group revealing high positive intensity and the one characterized by low intensity appeared in the eleven scales: social presence (Sp), responsibility (Re), socialization (So), self-control (Sc), tolerance (To), good impression (Gi), communality (Cm), achievement via conformance (Ac), achievement via independence (Ai), intellectual efficiency (Ie), feminity (Fe). In turn, the differences between the groups with high intensity of positive and negative religious attitude were discovered in the eight scales: capacity for status (Cs), social presence (Sp), responsibility (Re), self-control (Sc), good impression (Gi), achievement via conformance (Ac), flexibility (Fx), feminity (Fe). Finally, the differences between the groups with low intensity and high intensity of negative religious attitude appeared in the three scales: dominaee (Do), achievement via independence (Ai), intellectual efficiency (Ie).Considering the empirical data, the individuals revealing high intensity of positive religious attitude prove in relation to the remaining groups more socially conscious, responsible, self-controlled, persevering. They also reveal greater intensity of these traits (diligence, intellectual efficiency, self-sufficiency) which help to achieve popularity in a social group and to gain its approval. Then, the testees of this group are characterized by the predispositions more connected with feminity (Fe), and therefore they are more delicate, ready to help, subtle, accepting other people. Finally the group reveals high social adjustment achieved mostly through compromise and adaptation to the environment. In turn, the representatives of the group revealing low intensity of religious attitude tend to possess the opposite traits. Therefore, in relation to the previous group, they would be less socially conscious and less responsible, less intellectually efficient, and at the same time more spontaneous and self-confident. The group reveals social maladjustment connected with feeling uncomfortable (low Wb) and a tendency to self-accusation (low Gi). Finally, the group revealing high intensity of negative religious attitude is characterized by activity, self-assurance, greater nonchalance and roughness in contacts with the environment. At the same time they are ingenous, self-sufficient and intellectually efficient. The group seems to be socially adjusted although it achieves this by means of subordination of the environment.At the end it is necessary to point out that the connection between the interpersonal aspect of personality and intensity of religious attitude does not merely concern the single traits but it also reaches deep into the structure of personality.

The essential aim of the present studies was to answer the question: ”What is the opinion of senior students about moral duties, considering a particular type of motivation?”.The testee was placed in a hypothetical moral situation and ordered to determine the degree of preference of three triads of norms taking into consideration perso- nological, deontological and utilitarian motivation. The ratings were presented on the scale of the degree of acceptance of the behaviour norms, ranging from 0 to 100. In order to determine the degree of preference for each of the motivations, the testee had to compare pairs of norms: ni with n2: nx with n3; n2 with n3. The comparison resulted in three global proportional indices of preferences completing to a hundred, since the testee was to give them for all these situations in which he considered accomplishment of the particular activity necessary.The analysis of the experimental data concerns 150 senior students from five higher schools in Lublin (30 students from each school).A general survey of the medial values of the degree of the motive preference indicates that in the main young people give priority to personological and deonto- logical motivation over utilitarian one.As far as personological motivation is concerned the testees seem to value most the norm: ”to help a person being in danger of losing his life”. The norm also achieved the highest degree of acceptance in the deontological version. In the group of norms of utilitarian motivation the students pronounced themselves in favour of ”to act justly as then one has a clear conscience”.When considering the problem of interdependence between the motivation ratings and the type of higher school it was found out that students of all higher schools equally (preferred norms of deontological motivation. It means that preference of this motivation is independent of the character of the higher school in which the young people are intellectually formed.The type of higher school proved however a significant determinant of the norm preference in respect of personological and utilitarian motivation. The highest degree of preference of utilitarian motivation could be observed in students from agricultural school, while medical students revealed lower degree in the ratings of personological motivation than university students. Besides the analyses of the results proved that the sex variable is not a significant determinant of the ratings of the norm preference in respect of the motivation type.

The discussed studies concern groups of religious character and liturgical interests. The tests were carried out upon two experimental groups of 150 persons being in firm contact with group and 50 persons being in temporary contact with the group, respectively. Their average age was* ca. twenty The studies included also 30 experienced guardians of such groups. The testees answered five questions concerning the motives of contact with a religious and liturgical group, founded on the assumptions of the direct as well as the projection methods.In the group characterized by firm contact the testees on the average state that 43 per cent of their collègues remain in contact with their religious and liturgical group without any deeper experiences or religious motives, The corresponding figure in the other group is 45, and in the guardians (answers) statements, 25.In most answers predominate motives referring to the positive atsmosphere in the group, and to the religiuos experiences (it concerns the answers both to the questions founded on the projection assumptions and the ones employing direct methods, though in reverse order).The difficulties and inhibitions the testees have to overcome and which may testify to the strength of their motivation, very often concern the person of the guardian, particularly in case of persons remaining in temporary contact with the group.In the course of the detailed analysis of the motives a general practical conclusion obviously suggests itself. In groups of religious character it seems absolutely necessary to see not only to the accomplishment of their specific religious tasks, but also to the matters of proper organization and coexistence within the group, both problems being strongly streesed by the tested young people.

Founded on the author’s studies concerning classification of wooden blocks, pictures of animals, and names, the article aims at proving that abilities involved in completion of similar tasks differ with age, and therefore mental level of testees. Notions developed by J. P. Guilford in his theory and model of the intellect structure were employed to interpret results of the studies.The article presents transverse studies of classification in children from four years to fifteen (30 children in each age-group) as well as longitudinal studies concerning acceleration of classification abilities in the situation of experimental training of children from four years to seven (121 children in the main groups, and the same number in control groups).The results indicate certain regularities of the successiveness of abilities. Tasks involving classification of wooden blocks, the correct completion of which demanded operations of converging formation on figurai material, leading to logical classes were completed by the four-year-olds by means of operations of cognition on figurai material, leading to units resembling playing patterns. Tasks, the correct completion of which demanded semantic abilities were completed by the four and five-year-olds by means of figurai abilities. For children from eight years to ten pictures of animals carried simultaneously both semantic and figurai contents. Cards with names of animals often carried symbolic contents for the eight-year-olds (classification according to the ’appearance’ of a name), while in case of the eight, nine, and ten-year-olds semantic contents co-occurred with notional figuration.Acceleration of the abilities development in condition of experimental training proved that at certain stages of development e.g., at the age of four, there existed impassable barriers as far as change of one type of abilities to another was concerned, e.g., figural to semantic abilities.Theoretical importance of the researched problems results from tearing the mechanisms governing both the origin of abilities and change of abilities of one type to another. Practical importance of the problems is apparent in the field of shaping abilities and accelerating their development.

The article concerns a particular problem: is the process of learning in simple experimental situations of ’continuous’ or ’discontinuous’ character? For a long time it has been a subject of dispute among psychologists. Spence (1949), Hull (1950), Bush and Morteller (1951), Estes and Burke (1955), Bourne and Restle (1959) pronounced themselves for the continuous theory of learning, while Krechevsky (1932, 1936), Bruner and co-workers (1956), Levine (1959), Estes (1964), Restle (1962), Bower and Trabasso (1964) favoured the discontinuous theory. The results achieved in the properly chosen experimental conditions confirm both opinions. Empirical decision whether learning is continuous or discontinuous constitutes the aim of the discussed studies.Certain assumptions of Bower and Trabasso’s model of concept identification were employed as theoretical tools permitting to settle the problem. The model assumes that in the experiment the sequences of reactions preceding the final error constitute independent Bernuolli samples, i.e., (a) probability of correct reactions preceding the final error remains constant p (the trait is known as the stationary character), (b) probability of a given reaction (either correct or incorrect) is independ of the earlier and later results in examining a sequence of experiments (the trait is known as independence). The expectations were empirically verified.An essential problem of either continuity or discontinuity of the process of concept identification is connected with the question of the stationary and independent character, if in the course of learning probability of a correct reaction p or an incorrect reaction q changes its value (p increases while q decreases) the fact confirme continuity of the process. If, on the other hand, the probability remains constant until the moment of completion, then the process of identification is of discontinuous character.The experiments the results of which are discussed in the article are simple. The subjects had to assign the stimuli to two groups. Each stimulus was characterized by six attributes, and each attribute, by one of the two values. The attributes and their values were as follows: (a) shape of geometrical figures (either a square or a triangle), (b) colour of the figure (either red or green), (c) size (either large or small), (d) thickness of the line (either thin or bold), (e) position of the dot (either above or under the figure), (f) position of the line (either horizontal or vertical). The number of all the possible, mutually differentiating systems of stimuli was 26=64.The stimuli were exposed successively in the order established according to the table of random numbers. After each reaction (accomplished classification of a single card) the subject was informed by the experimenter about either correctness or incorrectness of his reaction. A succession of sixteen correct reactions was considered the criterion of solution (learning).A hundred college students (five groups) were tested. Forty experiments were carried out upon each subject. It was attempted to settle the initially set question of continuity v. discontinuity in different stimulus situations. Group 1 solved the problems in which one attribute only was significant, Group 2 solved the problems in which two attributes were always significant and redundant, Group 3, the problems with three significant, redundant attributes. Group 4 solved the problems where the stimuli possessed one, two or three significant attributes in random order. Groups 4 and 5 solved the same problems, yet subjects from Group 5 were in formed that some of the problems would contain one significant attribute while others would have two or even three, and that different types of problems would appear in random order.Therefore five varieties of experiments were carried out i = l ... p(5): there were five statistical tests (five groups). In each variety forty experiments were carried out and for the pourposes of statistical calculations these were in succession connected into eight classes with five results (experiments) each j = l ... q(8). Two subsamples divided according to sex consituted each statistical test k=l ... r(2). In each sub-group there were ten persons 1 = 1 ... n (10).Since according to Bower-Trabasso’s model stationary and independent character of attempts preceding the solution does not depend on skill (order of experiments) particular results were connected.Results achieved by each person in a single experiment represent sequences of one’s (errors) and zero’s (correct reactions). To decide whether the process generating these sequences is of the stationary character one examines each individual sequence of units and zero’s considering a series of attempts exclusive of the final error, and sub-sequently divides it into two equal parts. Then, correct reactions and errors in each part are summed up. Next, the appropriate halves for all the subjects within particular groups are summed up. In this way it is possible to calculate the number of errors and correct reactions in both the first and the second half for each group and for particular sub-groups.Table 1 presents the number of correct attempts and the number of errors in both halves for all the sub-groups. In both halves of all the series in all the varieties of the experiment there are more correct reactions than errors. It means that probability p (of a correct reaction) is higher than probability q (of an incorrect reaction). The result departs from the one expected by Bower and Trabasso p = 0.5.In nearly all the sub-groups the number of correct reactions in the second half is higher in comparison with the corresponding figures in the first half, although it is different with the number of errors. Table 2 contains a detailed comparison of the received values ^2. The differences (between the number of correct reactions and errors are statistically significant. Values x2 significant at the level .05 are underlined once, those significant at the level .01 are underlined twice. It clearly indicates certain improvement in the manner of solving in the second half of the sequence of attempts, and therefore confirms the hypothesis that the final error is preceded by learning, and in turn shakes the assumption about the stationary character of attempts preceding the final error. Charts 1 to 5 illustrate some of the data from Table 2.The notion that successive reactions preceding the solution are statistically independent constitutes another essential assumption of the model. The matrix of transitions from a correct reaction and an incorrect reaction was completed for each person in order to establish whether the samples were independent. In this way forty cumulated four-field matrices were received. Table 3 presents the x2 values for all the matrices. The results confirm that the action of identification of notions is not a pure stochastic process (it reveals certain trends, e.g., more transitions from correct reactions to correct ones) as in the course of the exercise the process becomes more random. Since according to the model skill should not influence the independence of tests, all the numbers were cumulated in Table 4, and the matrix of transitions for all the 4.000 results was determinedz The yf test for the four-field matrix of transitions (x2=68.35) (P < .01). It obviously indicates that particular samples in the chain of reactions do not satisfy the requirements typical of independent Bernoulli samples. The present article attempts at the interpretation of these differences.

The article aims at the analysis of a subject’s behaviour in the decision situation with a source of reliable (infallible) information. Notions developed by the statistical theory of decision were employed for the purposes of formal description of the information processing.The optimal decision model was constructed for the information processing of a subject remaining in the decision situation of an experimental type, permitting to determine whether the behaviour of the actual decision-maker fulfilled postulates of the statistical theory of decision.The decision model indicates that information processing (often identified with cognition) results from a complex of decisions. To its elements belong among others, decision of initiation, the function of which is to accomplish the primary information cycle, as well as form positive attitude towards continuation of subsequent cycles ; decision of continuation constituting the basis for undertaking subsequent information cycles : signiferent decisions, realizing a definite course of signifirent decisions according to certain strategy.Subsequently, formally characterized elements of the decision complex constituted point of reference for the analysis of behaviour of the actual decision-makers, in this case children from eight years to fifteen. The decision model permitted to observe the course of information processing in the experimental situation of the type where a decision is made in the conditions permitting influx of reliable (infallible) information on the state of affairs.In the course of analysis of the experimental data from the point of the model behaviour some determinants of the testees’ decisions were established.It was observed, among others, that nearly all the children made the initiation decision which was the necessary condition of realizing information processing in the experimental situation. Age of the testees and the factor of learning proved important determinants of this decision.On the other hand, as far as the continuation decision was concerned, it was established that with growth of uncertainty of situation the testees tended to increase successively the number of information cycles. Yet, the fact that increse in uncertainty of situation from five to six hypotheses does not result in further increase in the number of cycles permits to assume that in situations of this type uncertainty of up to five hypotheses ( —log2 1 5 bits) constitutes the subjective limit of the direct influence of the degree of uncertainty upon the decision of continuation.Besides, statistical analyses proved that the number of undertaken information cycles depended on the shape of matrices upon which the ’’treasure” was situated, although it was independent of the order of their exposition in the experiment.Finally, one should observe that the attempt at the formal description of the subject’s behaviour in the experimental situation by means of notions developed by the statistical theory of decision not only permitted the experimenter to observe the testee’s behaviour in a more thorough manner, but also indicated the heuristic values of the procedure.

Experimental studies in the ’roulette’ type situations differing in the probability of occurence of particular events (the needle coming to rest on either green or blue compartment of the disc) were carried out upon 313 persons from eight years to fifteen. The testees played against the experimenter having previously established the sum of money they staked on the events on "their” smaller blue compartment. The experimenter played on the green compartment with a set stake of 1p.The results of the experiments permit to observe that in the situations with a relatively high probability of occurence of the desired event (the needle coming to rest on the blue compartment) the testees tend to underestimate the utility of activities in their decisions. On the other hand, when the probability is lower than 1/5 the testees, on the average, choose stakes lower than the optimum ones, they overestimate the utility of their activities.Also with the development of the testees the tendency to overestimate the utility of activities changes its direction. The age of eleven proves the turning point. It is only after this stage in their development that the testees are able to combine probability and value into one dimension, utility. Younger children ascribe the dominant role to one of the determinants and estimate the utility of their activities accordingly.Besides, the studies have permitted to determine that similarly to adults, children in their behaviour also follow the SEU criterion rather than the EU one.