The paper deals with the problems bordering on social psychology and psychology of personality. The discussed investigation is limited to two ąuestions: (1) whe- ther two groups of persons markedly differing in the measurements of their attitude towards religion obtained by means of the Study of Values test differ also in the basie factors (traits) of personality measured by means of another test, that of The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire; and then (2) whether it is possible already possessing the set of personality traits of the two groups to determine the discriminant, i.e. such combination of the traits that permits to differenciate both groups best. Proper answer to these ąuestions is determined by the suitably chosen stati- stical method. This paper employs one of the methods of finding out the traits known in statistics and called a seąuential discrimination analysis (Olekiewicz, 1962, 1966). It permits to distinguish two populations fairly effectively, e.g. to establish the sex of the person on the grounds of the morphological traits of the fragments of the cranium. The method allows to found the diagnosis not upon one trait but upon several traits at the same time. The classical discrimination analysis created by R. A. Fisher is used to determine the optimum combination of traits from the whole set, so that the function that differs two populations is, as statisticians say better than even the best discrimination of the populations on the grounds of the single traits only. A combination of two or morę traits of greatest distinctive value is called a discriminant. The classical method of a discrimination analysis is employed to calculate the discriminant from all the traits. Yery numerous groups and many calculations are necessary before the finał set of traits is reached through moving back. In a seąuential discrimination analysis on the other hand, simpler and morę economic method is employed. To realize it greater number of k traits is necessary from which sets of two best traits are selected in succession, then three traits, etc., until the selection of further sets proves unprofitable. According to Olekiewicz, the finał set should consist of three, seldom four traits.The aim of a seąuential discrimination method is to select the best twołs and if need be three’s from among a great number of k traits. It is not always that two best traits get into the best dyad. Fairly often one of the worst traits gets into such a dyad. A trait treated separately usually has no greater diagnostic value yet it achieves it in combination with another trait. It may happen that one of the worst dyads of traits gets into the best three.In the investigation two groups with strongest difference in their religious attitudes were singled out. On the grounds of measurement in the scale of religious values in the first group (n1=50) were included persons characterized by the hig- hest, religious attitude dominant in comparison with all other attitudes measured by means of the Study of Values (Xi=75,65; σ1=5,70). Conyentionally the group was called the religious one (symbol: R). On the grounds of a parallel criterion the second group was selected (n2 = 50). It was characterized by the lowest religious attitude in comparison with all other attitudes (X2=27,53; σ2=8,66). The group was called also conventionally the unreligious one (symbol: R). The difference between the mean measurements of the discrimination trait is statistically very significant (χ2=22,44; df=1; P <0.01). Table 1 characterizes the investigated groups divided into proper sub-classes, depending on group, sex, and type of education.All persons from both groups were tested by means of The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire taking into consideration 16 traits (factors). A seąuential discrimination analysis was applied to the obtained quantitative data. The value of the linear discrimination function g for all the 16 traits considered together is g = 0,647. In Table 4 some statistical caracteristics and discrimination properties of single traits are given expressed in sten units. The best single trait discriminating the two groups is Q (g=0,386). In Table 5 are given the values of the discrimination functions of those two’s that really proved statistically better than the best traits considered separately, i.e. than Q. Table 6 presents the values of the discrimination functions that really proved better statistically than the best dyad of traits. To make it clearer in Table 7 was given the distributiye seąuence of the discrimination power of particular traits considered separately (the first column), dyads of traits (the second column) and the threes of traits (the third column) which were pre- sented together in Tables 4, 5 and 6, Table 8 presents numbers and percentages of right and wrong classifications obtained on the ground of a seąuential analysis of 16 traits considered together, and then of the best five three’s and five two’s. It is worth stressing that the number of right and wrong classifications is of sornhow arbitrary character depending on the accuracy of the distribution seąuence, and therefore on the value of the interval. It seems then that a seąuential discrimination analysis permits to classify fairly correctly particular persons in proper groups. This paper, on the one hand is an attempt to present the effectiveness of a statistical method applied to psychology, and on the other permits to elucidate the discussed essential problems.

I. The subject of the workIn Rozwój zdolności do klasyfikowania u dzieci (The Deuelopment of Classifica- tion Ability in Children, 1967) the author has presented 11 grade scalę to be used in stating the level of development in toy błock classification and a 9 grade scalę for classification of animals’ pictures. The scalę combine Piagefs method of ąuali- tative characteristics of the periods with the development of psychometrie numeral oharacteristics of these periods. The children in concrete operation phase have been examined.In next work Wpływ eksperymentalnego uczenia dzieci na rozwój ich zdolności logicznych (The Influence of Experimental Teaching on Logic Capabilities in Children, 1970) the results presented concerned the research on ąuickening the develop- ment of these logical operations which the above scales comprise. The children in the ages from 4 to 7 have been examined.The aim of the present work is to examine the phases of formal operations of classification and differentiating the periods of development in this phase. The secondary aim is an introductory presentation of a scalę for measuring the level in the development of names of classification operations.II. The method of ezamination of formal classification operation1. The basie method for the examination of formal classification operations contains some elements of examining the concrete operations. Instead of toy blocks pieces of papers with the names of the features of the same objects have been used. These are colour, shape, size etc. The classification of the names of object features and the names of animals has been arranged as a series of ”problems” reąuiring the use of new and new criteria for the division. One of the problems was a set of ąuantifying ąuestions.2. The author has used the test Progressive Matrices by J. C. Raven as acompanying method. The application of this test gave generał indication of intel- ligence levels.3. 240 persons in the age 8-15 years have been examined. In each age group there were 30 children, half of them boys and half of thenn girls.III. The means for evaluation of the advancement in formal operations of classificationThe basie criteria for the level of development in classification operations were(1) the way of making divisions — P, (2) the way of verbalization, comprising similarities and differences — W, (3) the number of divisions madę — L, and (4) the way of answering and its explanation on ąuantifying ąuestions — K. In each of these indicators five scalę gauge has been accepted.The lowest mark in the indicator of divisions (Pi) — among the names of objects features was^ given to these children who did not succeed in any correct grouping of cards. A little higher indicator (P2) — was given to those who chose the cards on the basis of the objective type of criterion, but the choice of it was accidental. P3 — logical divisions of attempts and mistakes. P4 — logical divisions according to separate criteria. Ps — anticipation of logical divisions, often hierar- chical.In L indicator (the number of solved problems): Li — no solved problem in classification, L2 — one solved problem, L3 — two problems, L4 — three or four problems; the person under examination was not able to solve one out of four or five problems on classification.IV. Periods in the development of the formal classification operations1. On the basis of the values achieved by the children in separate indicators (see table 1 and 2) four periods in the development of the operations have been differentiated. The first period comprising the ages till 8 years reveal a lack of formal activities.The children gave mark 1 or 2 in all the indicators. The second period, ages 9 to 11, reveals traces of formal operations; all the indicators are 2 or 3. The third period, ages 12 to 14, has developed but not mastered formal operations, indicators are 3 or 4. The fourth period, ages 15 years and morę, reveals a fully xacquired skill in formal operations (indicators are 4 and 5 in all the cases, which means that, beside fully logical operations, there are some mistakes).2. Psychological interpretation of the differentiated periods has been done with the help of eight characteristics:(1) subjecting to the reąuiremenls of the problem in the classification of names,(2) the presence of the symbolic function in the operation of classification,(3) the extent of interiorization in the operation,(4) the degree of independence between the operation and the actual text,(5) reversibility of the operation,(6) the level of functioning of the inclusion mechanisms,(7) the ability of ąualification,(8) the differentiation and generalization between classification structures.The role of symbolic function, for instance, is a distinctive feature of thedevelopment of formal operations. In the first period the cards with the names occur to children as practical categories, as certain concrete objects connected with their own activity. In the second period, however, a gradual objectivization and signification of the classified objects take place. In the third period the notions are classified. Therefore, the nonessential feature of the objects have no decisive influence on the formation of a class. In the fourth period a conscious use of signs and symbols can be seen.

The transformation of signals into information is one of the fundamental phases of informative operation in the decision situations. That is why the cognition of psychological regularities in the transformation of signals effects the whole course of informative operation in the decision situations.The article attempts at an analysis of the course of transformation of signals into infallible information in experimental situations. Subjects were put in the decision situation with the source of infallible information. Their task was to take a definite signiferent action (to pick up a little tree fastened to a stand) and next to transform the received singal into the infallible information about the ”treasure hidden in the wood”.The analysis of the results obtained in the experimental examinations proved that the transformation of signals into the infallible information only partly remains in agreement with the objeetive criterion of information theory. It was also proved that the degree of agreement with that model depends on the developmental factor (three developmental stages were singled out; they differed in the degree of agreement with the model; the first period — children aged 8; the second period — children from the ages of 9-13 years; the third period — children aged 14 and 15) as well as on the indefinite character of a given situation.The narrowing of the body of hypotheses among the examined children is a typical deviation from the optimal course of transforming the signals.On the basis of the results of the statistic analysis it was suggested that the definite character of a situation (4 hypotheses) is a subjective boundary of indiffer- ence with reference to that type of deviation. Each change in indefiniteness of the situation which oversteps the boundary influences the growth of a tendency to reduce the body of hypotheses.In the course of the analyses it was pointed out that the shape of matrix is an essential determinant of the course of the phase of transforming the signals. Further- more, it was stressed that the shape of the exposed matrix determines the different preferential capacity of hypotheses, what, in conseąuence, determines the degree of narrowing the body of hypotheses in the decision situation.The article is confined only to the characteristics of one deviation from the optimal model — to the reduction of the body of hypotheses. Unfortunately the short form of the article does not allow to discuss the other subjective deviations.

The notions of psychological deficiency of intellectual one stand out against understanding the changes or some psychic loss as irreparable — what is suggested by the term ”defekt” (adopted from German psychiatry), which is generally accept- ed in Poland. Intellectual deficiency refers only to a certain decrease of mental efficiency or to some definite functions; it may fluctuate, grow deeper or restore. The proofs of deficiency have been sought by means of many investigations con- cerning the measurement of intelligence, the appreciation of the processes in thinking, the memory, etc.In Chapter I the author presents different approaches to the measurement of intellectual deficiency, starting with the tests of Binet’s Intelligence Scalę up to the investigations based on standardized intelligence scales of Wechsler.The second chapter (based minly on American scientific literaturę) offers the proofs of intellectual deficiency in schizophrenia according to its clinical form, its development, etc., showing, at the same tirne, the controversial conclusions to which different authors have come. The author of the present article suggests that the above differences are mainly the result of of the lack of investigations based on strictly homogeneous groups. On the other hand the intellectual deficiency coming out in the test proves an enormous differentiation in schizophrenia — not only within the group which finally is heteronomic, but also in the achievements of the same patient. Hence, we may speak about the individual pattern of responses cha- racteristic of schizophrenia.Chapter III discusses the author’s own examinations of two groups of schi- zophrenics, 24 persons each. Their schizophrenia have taken the form of paranoia. without any serious somatic disease. The process of their illness has not started before they were 18 years old. The two groups consisted of 8 women and 16 men (all of them were the country people). The similar criteria have been accepted in the examination of these groups, except a few ones, the aim of which was to differ- entiate the chronically ill patients from those whose illness was not chronical. The ”chronical” group was represented by the patients whose disease lasted from 5 to 15 years, and, who, having been in the hospital for the period of 2 years without any intermission, revealed at least 3 remissions. The other group w^as represented by the patients whose disease lasted not morę than 4 years, and the number of remissions was not higher than 4. It can be stated, therefore, that the criteria of dividing the patients into 2 groups could be defined as the period of duration of the disease and the stability of schizophrenic defect.The members of the ”chronical” group were put through the process of rehabili- tation which lasted 3 years. It aimed to activate the patients as well as to prepare them to morę organized work, and finally to take certain effects of social, occupa- tional and clinical rehabilitation (cfj Z. Płużek, 1972). Fig. 1 presents the derno- graphic structure of the examined groups. The intelligence has been measured by means of Wechsler-Bellevue test, which was employed twice, before and after the process of rehabilitation of the ”chronical” group. The representatives of the other group were tested once only, shortly before they left hospital, that is in the time of remission. All the patients were examined in the same hospital.Chapter IV offers an analysis of the research results in which the results of the two examinations of the ”chronical” group were compared with each other; on the other hand there is a comparison of the results of the two groups. Fig. 2 presents average results together with standard deviations as well as the changes (in percentage) in ”chronical” group (column 3) and the ranges for the particular tests (columns 4 and 6).As the Polish version of Wechsler Scale has not been standardized yet. There are some deviations from Wechsler’s assumptions. Some additional differences may appear as the examined patients are country people. In order to receive morę reliable comparisons the author ąuotes the examinations of the inhabitants of one village representative of the some region in which the members of the two groups had previously lived. The results of this research (Wechsler-Bellevue Test) were presented in column 5, fig. 4 and compared to the results reoeived during the examination of the two groups.Chapter V shows the conclusions resulting from the preceding analyses which are reduced to the statement that the intellectual capacity of the patients of the ”chronical” group is lower than the capacity of the members of the second group and is much lower than average intelligence. Intellectual deficiency refers mainly to motor efficiency, decrease of the speed of working, ability of learning new habits, visual motor coordination. The differences in verbal capability between the two groups chiefly depends on the social conditions. A long period of staying in hospital deepens the the process of isolation and passiveness of a patient, and, finally, causes the decrease of intellectual abilities. The aetive process of rehabilita- tion leads to a certain improvement of intellectual achievements, but not in the case of all the patients. The appreciation of the intellectual standard and the obser- vations of dynamie ąuality of the changes are significant in the process of rehabili- tation, but they do not determine its effects (as it was presented in the work of Z. Płużek, 1972). The intellectual deficiency in schizophrenia does not represent a real mental defect; it is a kind of weakening one intellectual functions, Avhich is connected with nonintellectual factors.

The problems concerning the educational influence of teachers upon pupils as well as the problems of interpersonal influence within the direct contact have captured the interest of many psychologists. Earlier considerations were not support- ed by experimental studies; they concentrated upon the teacher whose results in work were satisfactory. They attempted at showing the teacher’s characteristic features, which in fact, were postulated rather than real, referring to a ”person of worth” and not to specific features of a teacher. All the investigations resulted in more setting the research problems with regard to their complexity, and in the presentation of perfect research techniques.One of the motives of examining the educational influence of teachers was the need to anticipate the success of a candidate for teacher in his futurę work. Hence the criteria of effectiveness of the teacher’s work were defined, and the scrutinies were concentrated on his behaviour. To achieve this various ways of observation were applied by means of an apparatus making a record of the teacher’s behaviour. As far as the object of observations is concerned several distinctions have been introduced with regard to various groups of factors conditioning the teaehers influence upon the pupil. The notion of teacher — pupil interrelation as well as the theory of roles were useful in the examinations. The latter was helpful as regards the institutional-organizational factors concerning school, which determine the specific situation in which the teacher’s educational influence occurs.However, the results obtained in the course of the investigation make an impression that although their significance for understanding the interpersonal influence and their practical importance are enormously great, the research work has only just been begun.

There are many detailed and different approaches to the problem of the genesis of attitudes. The source of that diversity lies in various ways of understanding the notion of attitude on one hand, and different theoretical contexts (in sense of psychological theories) in which these interpretations are carried out (e.g. psycho-analytical theories and theories of learning) on the other. In the classification of the processes which direct the formation of attitudes the mechanisms of their de- velopment were taken into account. The classification presented in the article offers mainly the basie determinants, namely the sources of attitudes. It seems, however, that there are three Principal sources determitning the development of attitudes, that is:1. the basic needs and the features of personality of an individual2. the information about the subjects,3. the context of social environment.

The nature of the article is historically methodological. It presents the outline of the fundamental problems connected with the scheme S—R, and with its modified form S—O—R. These two schemes summarize the basie thesis of behaviorism and at the same time constitute an interesting methodologically theoretical idea. The polemic raised by Watson causcd the methodological investigations in psychology and filled them with their specific character; it seems to be the most essential achievement of psychology, which was possible only with the help of S—R model. It was also the cause of objective and methodological reorganization of psychology. These ideas stimulated and generalized a new idea of psychology as a science, what resulted in the new meanings of many psychological problems. Conseąuently, it caused the change in describing and explaining the psychic life of man. Moreover, much work has been done in order to enrich psychological terminology and research techniąues. The above factors are the two strongly connected and interdependent aspects of the so-called ”method of inquiry”. Thanks to the idea of S—R and to several complementary attempts at including O factors into these terms — the psychologists developed their own language, different from a language of introspective psychology as well as of physiology.The article suggests that some methodological, ontological, and theory-cognitive assumptions constitute the background of every science. They are often ignored by the representatives of particular Sciences. Many psychologists accept certain methodological assumptions of behavioristic type (on account of heuristic values) but it does not directly imply those ontological assumptions which are the basis of the propositions of Watson or some of his folio wers.In psychological investigations one may distinguish ihree levels of explanation:1. where there are only the statements of operational-functional nature,2. where there are hypothetical constituents (?), the nature of which being theoretical,3. in which the constituents (?) and the hypotheses concerning them are treated as implications of certain ontological theses.It seems that in behavioristic psychology occurred an evolutional transit!on from the explanation of (3) level to the explanations of (1) and (2) levels, and in some ex- treme cases only to (1) level. It is worthy of mention here that there is no revcrse implication, which means that the acceptance of explanations at (1) and (2) levels does not suggest the necessit.y of accepting the definite explanations at (3) level.There has lately appeared a new tendency in invesigations called cognitive, which becomes more and more popular now. It, in a sense surpasses S—R scheme. A feature common to many authors is the emphasis pul on the cognitive "accents" in man’s behavior, especially on consciousness, conscious motives of behavior, etc. These psychologists attempt at constituting some theoretical frames, which would go beyond S—R scheme.

Kant’s negative attitude towards psychology is commonly known. He denied psychology to be the science, disputing against the scientific value of the introspective materiał as well as against the considerations concerning the human ego. Kant did not even use the traditional term of psychology. It was also him who made an attempt to substitute psychology for anthropology where the materiał constituting the theme of empirical has been included in so-called didactic anthropology, while the problems of ethology, psychology of psychic differences etc., were meant to be the subject of anthropological characteristics.The present article deals with the latter problem showing that Kant was a keen observer of psychic life of man, its main forms and attitudes, what is madę elear by his penetrating remarks concerning this particular problem. But in fact his psychological opinions did not depart from the common XVIIIth century views or did they offer any novelty.Kant’s most interesting views concerning the psychology of sex and the psychology of nations clearly vary from the contemporary judgements. He always stressed the greatness and dignity of man as well as man’s specific individuality in comparison to animals.