Cette étude a été suscitée par deux thèses: 1. celle de Gilson qui affirme que Thomas emploie toujours les term es „esse” et „ipsum esse” dans un sens existen- tiel et que les mots „existere” et „existentia” ne designed jamais chez lui 1’acte d’existence; 2. celle de Saffrey que le Liber de causis ne constitue pas, au Muyen- -Age, la source de la problématique de l’existence.Discussion des positions ci-dessus: Ad 1. L’analyse du terme „existentia” et de ses formes fléchies dans le Commentaire en question, texte édité par H. D. Saffrey en 1954, mène à la conclusion que dans cet ouvrage, p. ex. aux pages 6 et 23, „esse” désigne l'être, comme le fait, pp. 6 et 30, le terme „ipsum esse”. Par contre, en p. 33, „existentia” peut signifier l'acte d’existence, et le terme „existens” de la p. 96 désigne l’existence, ce qu’il fait aussi peut-être en p. 10. Quant au terme „existentis” à la p. 26 il peut désigner la première cause existante. Dans les autres cas les termes de la familie de „existentia” représented effectivement le fait d’être ou l’être. II ne s’agit pas ici de contredire la thèse de Gilson mais de constater qu’une reconstitution valide des idées exprimées par Thomas sur l’existence dans le Commentaire est chose compliquée du fait que !e terme „ipsum esse” n’y désigne pas toujours l’existence, pas plus que celui d’„existentia” ne designe toujours l’être ou la chose existante. C’est justement „ipsum esse” qui peut désigner l’être, et „existentia” — l’existence. II en découle qu’avant de chercher à déterminer ce que Thomas a voulu dire de l’existence dans le Commentaire, il y a lieu de procéder à une analyse, plus attentive s’il se peut qu’en d’autres textes, des significations qu’ont dans cet ouvrage les termes „existentia” et „esse”.Ad 2. Roland-Gosselin pense que Thomas a puisé dans le Liber de causis l’idée de la difference entre l’existence et l’essence en transformant le problème de la relation entre le tout et les parties en celui de l’existence et de l’essence, précisément. Le même auteur attache aussi de l'importance à l’affirmation du Liber de causis, commentée par Thomas, que l’être se compose du fini et de l'infini. Krąpiec voit dans cette dernière these la source de la theorie de l’existence et de ^essence. II ajoute que Thomas commente le Liber de causis precisement dans l’esprit de la theorie que l’on vient de mentionner. Du reste Thomas resout le Probleme lui-meme; renvoyant au Liber de causis il affirme que „intelligentia est habens formam et esse”. Quand on se rappelle que Thomas ecrivit le Commentaire en 1272. partant apres avoir dejä formule ses vues dans ses oeuvres maj eures, il est plus que vraisemblable qu’il lisait le Liber de causis ä la lumiere de sa conception de l’etre, compose de l’existence et de l’essence.

L’article étudie la signification de la preuve anthropologique de l’existence de Dieu, présentée par J. Delanglade S. J. en son livre Le Probleme de Dieu, Paris 1960. C’est une preuve essentielle en théodicée, bien qu’il y en ait d’autres. On l’a appelée, non à l’encontre de l'intention de l’auteur peut-être, preuve anthropologique. Elle est du type métaphysique. Son point de départ est la connaissance qu’a de l’homme la philosophie d’aujourd’hui: l’homme est un être contingent et personnel, c.-à-d. capable de vie spirituelle, un esprit, ce dont témoigne le plus fortement, à côté de nombre d’autres traits, la capacité qu’a l’homme de se tourner dans les actes de raison et de volonté vers l’infini, l’absolu, Dieu. L’auteur reconnaît en l’homme un être composé d’une âme et d’un corps. S’appuyant sur le principe métaphysique de la raison suffisante et sur d’autres lois majeures touchant l’être en général, il tire la conclusion que la raison ultime expliquant l'être humain est un être nécessaire, absolu, infiniment parfait, spirituel et personnel. Or un tel être est identique au Dieu de la religion. La preuve élaborée par Delanglade est un essai réussi pour lier la „voie de l’homme à Dieu” avec la philosophie réaliste de l’être, autrement dit avec la métaphysique; il n’est pourtant pas seul à l’avoir entrepris. Le résultat le plus important de ses efforts est d’avoir établi, au plan purement rationnel, que l’être qui est la raison süffisante de l’être humain (et de tout l'univers aussi) est Esprit au sens le plus plein de ce mot, et par là même être Personnel, Providence, Amour Divin.

De Civitate Dei is an apology primarily since its author wrote it to defend Christianity against the charge made by pagans that it was responsible for all the misfortunes afflicting the Homan Empire in the last stage of its existence. But Augustine, working at the book over 13 years, extended it into a powerful doctrinal synthesis in which, together with a number of other problems, he gave much attention to ethics. His ideas in this field can be reduced, more or less, to the following statements. 1. In ethics a clear distinction must be established between the aim and the means to obtain it; 2. the aim is the supreme good, which God alone can be, while earthly goods can serve as means only; 3. virtue fulfills an important function in practical life, but it is no more than an instrumental factor with respect to the aim of ethics. De Civitate Dei does not present the whole picture of Augustine’s ethics; it should be complemented by his other writings, particularly his Commentaries of the Scripture, his moral writings, his sermons and discourses; as it is, however, it sufficiently outlines its fundamental problems, and does it in a final form. Augustine, no doubt, borrowed his ethical conceptions from pagan ethics, but filled them with a Christian content.

On the basis of factual material — tumour growth in trees — the author tries to ascertain the function of biological field inside the biological system. The whole problem can be reduced to the effects of organic substance, biological field and geometry of the system, i.e. to space relations.The biological field inside a system (field information). By introducing the simplification which sees the biological system as an aperiodic crystal we extend the range of problems involved (reflection, refraction, absorption, polarization of electromagnetic information). As biologically active organic compounds as well as tissues evince semiconductor properties the aperiodic crystal may be considered as semiconductor. This induces the author to believe that the biological system may be treated as physical plasma by a large approximation. The assumption is, in fact, generally accepted for semiconductors. In this way 4 the steering influence of the biological field with actual displacement of mass is easier to interpret. The approximation applies to all biological levels (molecule, cell, tissue and organism) simultaneously. The distinction of plasma as special state of living matter has some analogy to the fourth state of matter in physics — plasma. For distinction sake, we may call it bioplasma (as different from cytoplasma or protoplasma).Treating the living system as plasma allows to explain extremely subtle interdependences between the organism and the environment such as the electric influence of changing warm and cold air fronts, the effect of meteorological conditions on the dissemination of neoplasma, the effect of ionosphere radiations on the organism with relation to the succeeding moon phases, the dependence of the organism on a weak magnetic field, etc.Weak electric stimuli are most probably received through the medium of electrostasis (ECS) Electrostasis might then be the electric protosensę of the organism.The schematization of the plasma allows the analysis of the way in which informations are received by an living system, without having to examine the mechanics of how the biological field is formed. Inside the plasma, impulses can be carried through like acoustic waves (longitudinal impulses), electrostatic, electromagnetic and magnetohydrodynamic, when even a weak magnetic field exists outside. As a rule, the informing impulses are of metabolic origin conditioned by the electric setting of the environment. The general metabolic background is therefore modified by the electromagnetic activity of the environment through the channel of the inner information of the biological system. Field information functions in an intermediate way through change of metabolism and variation of electrostasis (ECS), both in plants and in animals. The nervous system is only a particular case of information.Geometry and life processes. The spreading of biological field impulses in a living system will depend on its geometry. The geometry of life is „three-dimensional”: mass, directional forces (field) and space. The biological material reveals two directions: a longitudinal one (L), and a radial one (R) at a right angle with the latter. The resulting symmetry may be generally called hexagonal (a = b = R, and L = c). The polarity of the directions L and R being taken into account, the biological system fulfills the postulate of a quadrupole and its variants. The quadrupole was an early evolutionary acquisition. Anisotropy is a higher form of geometry than isotropy.The "hexagonal” symmetry appears at molecular level, and up to and including the organismal one, through that of tissue, in both vegetable and animal worlds, though in the latter more complexity is due to the existence of the organs of motion. The historical transmission of geometry in the phenomenological scale is paleontologically confirmed.The "hexagonal” symmetry with L directed longitudinally and R radially, and with RlL should evince potential gradient. Two different points on L or R should show a difference of potential. On the other hand, the anisotropy of the biological system has a large range of characteristics, and includes also mechanical, optical, thermic, piezoelectric, magnetic and other properties. Anisotropy must also appear in the processes of physical plasma and in the field information within the biological systems. The author examines this question taking tree trunks for illustration. Field information (electrostatic, electromagnetic or magnetohydrody- namic) is strictly conditioned by the directional forces of the environment such as geomagnetic field lines, atmosphere electric gradient, telluric currents, light. This dependence has developed by evolution.The trunk of a tree can be considered as a multiplates condenser, the outer tissue of which is active and most sensitive. The line L is the general steering direction, while the lines R are a differentiating factor. The outer plate of this condenser is the most suitable for observation of a pathological biological field expressed by distorted tissue as anomalies accrue on the outer side.Field pathology and neoplasmic tissue. The existence of the pathology of the biological field is to be accepted on the same grounds as pathological morphology, anatomy and physiology. A pathological field causes a faulty transmission of information which, in turn, involves nontypical morphological structures. Distorted activity of the biological oscillator ensues at molecular level, and leads, through abnormal reception, to a pathological displacement of biological mass. Consequently a nontypical (neoplasmic) tissue is formed, characterized by a changed electric condition. Then normal electrostasis undergoes a deviation.The morphological consequences of a disturbed biological field were investigated by the author on tree material in the Holy Cross National Park (Central Poland). He found several characteristic groups of distorted tissue. Both the directions L and R are subject to distortion in the trunk of a tree. On receiving anomalous field information, cambium divides chaotically, and falls outside the influence of the coordinating factors conditioned by the normal geometry of the system. It is to be assumed that neoplasmic tissue in plants shows, similarly to that of animals, a changed electric state, hence a nontypical electrostasis. There exist many conditions in a tree favouring the possession of non cathabolically originated electrons, as, for instance, following dielectric friction (rain, snow), triboelectricity, setting free of piezoelectrons in result of passive, wind-caused, motion, injuries, and others...The simple geometry of a trunk, expressed by the directions L and R, affords handy material for the investigation of distorted symmetry in the case of tumour growth. This simplicity allows also schematizations and the analysis of normally existing information and its pathological deviations.

„Parvus error in principio magnus est in fine”. The accuracy of this maxim of Aristotle’s placed by St. Thomas at the beginning of his short treatise De Ente et Essentia was substantiated in my book De existentia substantiali in doctri- na s. Thomae Aquinatis (Romae 1962). It is even much more apparent when one tries to see the operations of nature as in the light of God’s cooperation, i.e. in the question called „concursus divinus” by the Scholastics. This question has recently attracted the interest of theologians, among others of the Jesuits John Stufler and Martinez del Campo. The former, however, on the ground of Suarez’ doctrine, does not go further than God’s indirect cooperation, while the latter, for not having pointed out the relation of this problem with that of the difference between essence and existence, fails to bring a rational explanation of the necessity of divine cooperation. The purpose of the present article is precisely to fill in this gap.Before discussing the fundamental problem, the author answers to all those who, like the „loquentes in lege Maurorum” or later occasionalists (Geulinxc, Malebranche, Edward) maintain that creatures do not perform their actions by themselves but only through the operation of God acting in them. St. Thomas criticizes that view strongly (II Sent., d. 1, q. 1, a. 4, c; De Potentia, q. 3, a. 7, c); he simply calls it „positio stulta”. Next follow a few remarks on the causation by the power of nature and faculties of the operations themselves which, again, J. Gredt OSB, sees as compound of essence and existence.Lastly, following in that regard St. Thomas’ classical text De Pot., q. 3, a. 7, c, the author affirms that God, qua proper efficient cause of all existence, cooperates with the operations of nature, both living and inanimate, insofar as He gives and preserves their existence and faculties (powers), which He applies to action, and insofar as any power whatsoever operates by His power. Hence, if the individual becomes to some extent the efficient cause of the essence of an operation, it is God who is the proper and immediate efficient cause of its existence. And as neither the essence nor the existence comprise the whole operation, we can say that both the creatüre and the Creator are the efficient cause thereof (causalités instrumentons).In this way St. Thomas avoids the difficulty from which cannot extricate themselves those who do not recognize any difference between essence and existence (Duns Scotus, Durandus, Suarez, Stufler, Wais), and, at best, do not go beyond indirect efficient dependence on God in the entire activity of nature.

The author tries to answer the question whether Thomas’s system is open or closed to other philosophical or scientific systems; whether theses belonging to other doctrines can be, transplanted into the soil of his philosophy. To help himself with this task, the author applied K. Ajdukiewicz’s theory of open and closed language to the philosophical system of Thomas Aquinas, which lead him to the following conclusions:From the theoretical point of view, and without forejudging the point what elements actually enrich traditional philosophy, it must be said that if Thomas’y system is a closed one it cannot be enriched by any new theses without its essential theses being deformed. If it is an open system, it can be enlarged by new theses, with no alteration of the older ones.From the factual viewpoint, it must be maintained that Aquinas’s philosophy is an open system, at least insofar as it is subject to development from inside. Indeed, different ideas of being and a variety of intellectual visions of reality arise. Thomas’s philosophy has been shown to possess existential foundations among others. The fresh awareness of these existential elements has enriched the system itself and our knowledge thereof. There is no doubt that traditional philosophy follows a vertical line of development, and is an open system in that regard.It remains open to discussion, however, it some at least of the theses from other philosophies may be incorporated into traditional philosophy. The author’s position is that the process is justified only when these do not involve changing the rules of meanings and ordinating definitions proper to Thomas’s philosophy. One of the questions particularly worth while considering is whether the Aristote- lician and Thomist cosmology is open to natural sciences. As these two types of knowledge study the material world in different aspects, and use different languages, they represent separate types of cognition. Therefore, natural science theses are not translatable into the language of philosophy. Natural facts cannot become an integral part of philosophy until they have been interpreted in the light of philosophical principles. The latter condition ensures philosophy from changing the meanings of its theses and terms.The question arises, then, whether particular sciences can develop without any metaphysics whatsoever. The analysis of this point reveals a paradoxical situation. On the one hand, positivistically minded scientists track down metaphysical elements in order to eliminate them from the field of science, while, on the other hand, the metaphysicians, as if anxious to preserve the building of science from falling, endeavour to give it a firm metaphysical basis. This seemingly incompatible marriage between metaphysics and particular sciences can be reconciled if each side perceives the difference between ontic assumptions, having a basis inside the system, and those with a basis outside the system. By reason of its structure, the foundations of metaphysics rest on a number of ontic hypotheses, ultimate, necessary, unmovable and unabolishable, which form an integral part of the system. As for particular sciences, their ontic assumptions are externally based. They do not belong to the structure of these sciences as consciously programmed elements, but are accepted implicitly, incidentally, externally. The reason is that particular sciences have fundamental assumptions of their own, integrally related with the system, unnecessary, abolishable, empirically confirmable. St. Thomas’s philosophy is also open to such externally based ontic assumptions.

Scientific theories directly define only those terms which appear in empirically testable sentences. The definition gives them such a meaning as the whole sentence receives the sense determined by the content of the observation. Theoretical terms, i.e. those that do not appear directly in empirically tested sentences, are ascribed a meaning such as empirically testable sentences can result from the propositions which contain them. A theoretical term can, therefore, be defined only in the context of a given theory. The purpose of this paper is to try to define the theoretical term „universe” within the theory called relativistic cosmology.In the relativistic cosmology, „universe” is not a singlemeaning word. The analysis reveals that it comes into the theory at several stages:1. It first appears during the construction of the material substratum. The „universe” is then defined: „a cosmic area sufficiently vast so that, compared to its linear dimensions, the distances between individual galaxies appear negligible” (Def. 1.). 2. The construction of the cosmological model results on a „already-model- led universe”. The latter can be defined: „a space-time in which has been set a metric being the solution of the gravitational field equations in which the constants R0, k and l have determined values” (Def. 2). 3. For the observer placed at a point defined by the coordinates xa = 0, at the moment t = 0, the „universe” consists in a set of events lying inside a light cone or on the surface thereof, the top of which is the moment-point (0, 0, 0, 0) (Def. 3). Consonantly to this definition, the „universe” is a relative concept, depending on a concrete observer and concrete moment t. It can be proved that the section of space-time by the light cone, i.e. the universe of def. 3, is finished and closed both in closed models and in the open ones. 4. The concept „universe” for the observer at a certain moment (according to def. 3) may be generalized into that of „universe for a certain observer, not restricted to one moment” (Def. 4). Considering the brevity, in cosmic scale, of the time during which man has carried out astronomical observations, def. 4 can be, for practical purposes, reduced to def. 3.The above definitions of the „universe” fulfill the methodological requirement of reducibility to the terms appearing in empirically testable propositions insofar as the testing of cosmic models is feasible. Such a testing can take place only „within the frame” of a universe consonant with def. 3.In the so-called Klein’s model, the concept of metagalaxy is used instead of universe. The metagalaxy is a system of galaxies originated from one condensation of primitive ambiplasma (plasma made up of a mixture of matter and antimatter). The theory admits the possibility that other metagalaxies exist.

The analysis of the data described in biology shows that the biological term "complex of factors” has a number of different meanings (a1} a2, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j). These have been distinguished upon reflection on the various types of interdependence occurring among independent variables, and due to a dependent variable. The concept of independent variable is identical in content with that of factor.

Der Aufsatz ist einer allgemeinen Charakteristik der organismischen Theorie gewidmet. Ihr Schöpfer ist Ludwig von Bertalanffy.Im ersten Abschnitt wird auf die erkenntnistheoretischen und obiektiven Quellen hingewiesen, im einzelnen auf die Unzulänglichkeit der Zellentheorie und die Versuche, ihr den rechten Platz unter anderen biologischen Theorien anzuweisen. Dann wird die Auseinandersetzung dargestellt zwischen Mechanizismus und Vitalismus um die Möglichkeit oder Unmöglichkeit einer Reduktion von biologischen Gesetzen zu den physikalischen. Die Unzulänglichkeit der analytisch-meristischen Erkenntnismethode bei vitalen Phänomenen ist betont. Daraus folgt die Notwendigkeit einer synthetisch-ganzheitlichen Auffassung (holistische Quellen: J. S. Haldane, Adolf Meyer-Abich).Die Hauptgedanken der organismischen Theorie L. von Bertalanffys werden im zweiten Abschnitt besprochen. Nach der Charakteristik der allgemeinen Systemtheorie folgt eine Darbietung der Ansichten L. von Bertalanffys auf das Wesen des Organismus als offenes System. Besonders hervorgehoben sind die Grundsätze der Organisation und hierarchischen Einordnung der Systeme im Organismus.Im dritten Abschnitt skiziert der Autor die Perspektiven der organismischen Theorie und deren Anwendung bei Untersuchen konkreter biologischer Probleme. Als Beispiel wurden geboten genetisch-evolutionistische Fragen, da diese heute zu den am meisten diskutierten zählen.

Modern knowledge about stars is founded 1. on a theory of the inner structure of stars and nuclear processes occurring within them; 2. on empirical data concerning the brilliance, colour and chemical composition of groups of stars of identic origin as regards space, time and material.In his description of the empirical and theoretical laws ruling the world of stars, the author makes use of two factors (representations): a model of our Galaxy, i.e. the system of ca. 100 milliard stars to which our sun belongs, and, on the other hand, the so-called Hertzsprung-Russel's diagram. After an architectonic outline of our Galaxy, which is made up of a number of star populations (galactic groups, populations of the disc and spiral arms, that of the so-called galactic halo), the author proceeds to answer the question how the stars of the particular populations set in the diagram just mentioned.The diagram shows different areas (zones) occupied by corresponding populations. This general picture is further explained by the theory and the data about the inner structure of stars and the course of thermo-nuclear processes.